3 .

Chapter three

Software Framework for Real Time and Embedded

system

Real time operating system Definition characteristics

function structure and support for application
 3.1 Software Framework for Real Time and Embedded system

 A software framework is a concrete or conceptual platform where common code with generic

functionality can be selectively specialized or overridden by developers or users.

 Frameworks take the form of libraries, where a well-defined application program interface (API) is

reusable anywhere within the software under development.

 A framework can make your job easier, and save you the trouble of writing your code totally from

scratch. The right framework can also reduce your development time by making it faster to design and

troubleshoot.
 Real-Time Embedded

Framework
A Real-Time Embedded Framework (RTEF) is an implementation of the Active Object des
pattern specifically designed for real-time embedded systems. RTEF provides the event-
driven

infrastructure for executing Active Objects based on a real-time kernel (RTOS kernel) to
ensure deterministic, real-time performance.
 A Real-Time Embedded Framework (RTEF) is an implementation of the Active Object design
pattern specifically designed for real-time embedded systems. RTEF provides the event-driven

infrastructure for executing Active Objects based on a real-time kernel (RTOS kernel) to
ensure deterministic, real-time performance.
 Con …
 Active Objects can be combined with a wide variety of threading models, including real-time kernels

(RTOS kernels). In the latter case, the combination, carefully designed for deterministic performance,
is called the Real-Time Embedded Framework (RTEF).

 The main difference between an RTOS and RTEF is that when you use a “naked” RTOS, you write the
main body of each and every thread in the application and from there, you call the various RTOS
services
(e.g., a time-delay or a semaphore).
 When you use an RTEF, you reuse the overall architecture (such as the event loop for all private threads
of
Active Objects) and you only write the code that the RTEF calls. This leads to inversion of control
,
which allows the RTEF to automatically enforce the best practices of concurrent programming.
In
contrast, a “naked” RTOS lets you do anything and offers no help or automation for the best
practices.
 Smaller than Traditional
 inRTOS
the resource-constrained embedded systems, the biggest concern has always been about the size and
efficiency of such RTEFs, especially that the frameworks accompanying various UML tools have
traditionally been built on top of a conventional RTOS, which can only add memory footprint and
CPU
overhead to the final solution.
 However, it turns out that an RTEF can be actually smaller than a traditional RTOS. This is possible,
because Active Objects don’t need to block internally, so most blocking mechanisms (e.g., semaphores)
of
a conventional RTOS are not needed.
 Con …

RTOS RTEF
(non-
(blocking blocking)
)

time events
delay active
s object
threads s
semaphores event
message time pools
mutexes queues event
s publish­
subscrib
event-flags e
state
machi
mailboxes
nes
 Preemptive, Non-Blocking Real-Time
Kernels
 While the Active Object model can work with traditional blocking RTOS kernels, it can also work with
other types of real-time kernels. Specifically, the non-blocking, run-to-completion Active Objects
can
work with a much simpler, fully preemptive, but non-blocking, run-to-completion kernels (see
also
basic tasks in OSEK/VDX).
 The QP RTEFs natively include a selection of such a super-simple and super-fast kernels (QK and
QXK), which support fully preemptive multithreading using a single stack for all Active
Object
threads.
Higher Level of Abstraction at Lower Cost

 A Real-Time Embedded Framework (RTEF) provides sufficiently high

level of abstraction and the right abstractions to effectively apply
modern finite state machines, model-based design and automatic code
to embedded MCUs, such as ARM Cortex-M.
generation
 3.1 Real time operating Definition:
 RTOS is stands for “Real time operating system”, and it is also known as embedded operating system.

 Real time operating system is totally depending upon the clock interrupts.

 This system produces the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) interrupts.

 RTOS implemented the Priority system for executing all types of process.

 Entire RTOS is synchronized with the process, and they can make communication in between all process.

 Real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended to serve real time application that process data
as it comes in, mostly without buffer delay. The full form of RTOS is Real time operating system.

 In a RTOS, Processing time requirement are calculated in tenths of seconds increments of time.

 It is time-bound system that can be defined as fixed time constraints.

 In this type of system, processing must be done inside the specified constraints. Otherwise, the system will fail.
 Con …

❖ When we hear the word operating system, first in our mind comes that the operating system used in
the
laptops & computers.
❖ Generally, we use different types of operating systems like windows XP, Linux, Ubuntu,
Windows
7,8.8.1, and 10.
❖ In the smartphones, the operating systems are like KitKat, Jellybean, marshmallow, and
Nougat.
❖ In a digital electronic device, there is some sort of operating system which is developed by the

microcontroller program.

❖ There are different types of operating systems to develop for the microcontroller, but here we have
discussed the real-time operating system.
 3.2 Features of RTOS

• Occupy very less memory

• Consume fewer resources

• Response times are highly predictable

• Unpredictable environment

• The Kernel saves the state of the interrupted task ad then determines which task it should run next.

• The Kernel restores the state of the task and passes control of the CPU for that task.
Characteristic of Real-
Time
operating syste
m
Characteristic Hard RTOS Soft RTOS

Response Time Strict deadline soft deadline

Safety Critical Not critical

Data Integrity Short term Long Term
Error Detection Automatic User assisted
 Function of Real time Operating System

 The prime function of RTOS provides the better management of RAM and processor as well as it gives

the access to all system resources. Read More – You Must be Known About Advantages and
Disadvantages of Operating System
 Higher Priority Scheduler:

 Real Time OS contains different many priorities with range (32-256) for executing to every task. This
scheduler helps to activate such process which has high priority. If current task is executing in CPU
processors ZONE, then it go to further highest priority task, and run processes.

 System Clock Interrupt Routine for Time Frame:

 System Clock Interrupt Routine helps to perform the highly time sensitive instructions in RTOS with
using system clocks. In which, it allots the time frame for performing the specific tasks.
 Con …

• Deterministic Nature:

• Real Time OS provides the protection in using big length tasks such as 100 to 1000, and it
determines the further highest priority task then executes them without getting delay.

• Synchronization and Messaging:

• For making the communication medium in among of all tasks of one system to other system,
RTOS use the synchronization and messaging. In which, synchronize the entire internally

activities of event flag and can be sent text messages with using the mailbox, pipes and
message queues.
 Types of RTOS
 There are three different types of RTOS which are
following

• Soft real-time operating system

• Hard real-time operating system

• Firm real-time operating system

Soft Real-Time
operating
 The soft real-time operating system deadlines, may be
The soft real-time
ain constrained to

 to some extent.
digital camera, mobile
phones
Real-Time CfJlltrollM
Operator
COllfjlut Object
L...
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Syrtem
Hard Real-Time and Firm Real-
time
operation system

 Hard Real-Time
This is Operating
also a type of OS System
and it is predicted by a deadline. The
predicted deadlines will react at a time t = 0. Some examples of this
operating system are air bag control in cars, anti-lock brake, and engine
control system etc.
 In the firm real-time, an
operating system has certain time constraints, they
are not strict and it may cause undesired effects. Examples of this
operating system are a visual inspection in industrial automation.
There are different types of basic functionalities of an RTOS are following

• Priority based scheduler

• System clock interrupt routine
• Deterministic behavior
• Synchronization and Messaging
• RTOS service
 functionalities of an RTOS are following
 Priority Based Scheduler
 In the priority-based scheduler, most of the RTOS is between 32 and 256 possible
priorities for the individual tasks or processes. This scheduler will run the process with
the highest priority. If the task is running on the CPU, then the next highest priority task
runs and continuous the processes.
 In the system, the highest priority process will have the CPU
• It runs to close
• If the original task is pre-empted by the new then a high priority process is made ready.
 There are three states of the tasks or processes which are like ready to run and the other
one is blocked and description of each state is given below.
 Ready to Run
 The ready to run is said to be when the process has all the resources to run, but it
should not be in the running state. Then it is called as a ready to run.
functionalities of an RTOS are following
 Running

 If the task is executing then it is said to have a running state.

 Blocked

 In this state, if it doesn’t have the enough resources to run, then it is sent to blocked state.

 Three techniques are modified to schedule the task, there are following with their description.

 Cooperating Scheduling

 In this type of scheduling, the task will run until the execution is completed

 Round Robin Scheduling

 In this scheduling, each process is assigned a fixed time slot and the process needs to complete its execution or
else the task loses its flow and data generation.

functionalities of an RTOS are following
Preemptive Scheduling

 The preemptive scheduling involves in the priority time-dependent time allocation.

 In generally 256 priority levels are used and each task has a unique priority level. There are some systems which support the more priority level and
multiple
tasks have some priorities.
 System Clock Interrupt Routine

 To perform the time sensitive operation the RTOS will provide some sort of system clocks. If there is a 1ms system clock, then you have to complete the
task
in 50ms. Usually, there is an API that follows you to say “In 50ms wake me up”. Hence the task would be in sleeping position until the RTOS will wake up.
We
have two notices that the woken up will not ensure to run exactly at that time, it depends on the priority and if the higher priority is running currently it would
be
 Deterministic Behavior
delayed.
 The RTOS moves to great length to protect that whether you have taken 100 tasks or 10 tasks, it does not make any difference in the distance to
switch
context and it determines the next highest priority task. In the prime area deterministic the RTOS is the interrupt handling, when the interrupt line is signaled
them
the
 RTOS immediately
We have takes
to noise that thethe action of of
developers thethe
correct interrupt
project service
will write the routine
hardwareandspecific
interrupt is handled
ISR’s. Beforewithout
now theany delay.
RTOS gives the ISR’s for the serial ports,
system
clocks and it may be a networking hardware, but if there is anything specialized like pacemaker signals, actuators, etc., are not be a part of the RTOS.
 This is all about the gross generalizations and there is a large variety implementation in the RTOS. Some of the RTOS are operated differently and the
above
functionalities of an RTOS are following
 Synchronization and Messaging
 The synchronization and messaging provides the communication between the
task of one system to another system and the messaging services are following.
 To synchronize the internal activities the event flag is used and to send the text
messages we can use in the mailbox, pipes and message queues.
 In the common data areas, the semaphores are used.
• Semaphores
• Event flags
• Mailboxes
• Pipes
• Message queues
 RTOS Service

 The most important part of the operating system is the Kernel. To

monitor the hardware the task should be relieved and the responsibilities
kernel manages & allocate the resources. If the task can’t obtain the CPU
attention for every time, then there are some other services provide by the
kernel. The following are
• Time services
• Interrupt handling services
• Device management services
• Memory management services
• Input-output services
 Components of Real Time Operating System

• Scheduler
• Synchronization mechanism
• Memory Management
• Function Library
• Interrupt Service Mechanism
• I/O Management
• Fast dispatch latency
• User-defined data objects and
•
classes
•
Hardware abstraction layer
•
Development Environment
Board Support Package
Scheduling Algorithms for RTOS

 CPU scheduling algorithms used for RTOS are also

different from normal CPU scheduling algorithms like
FCFS, SJF etc. For example, a couple of popular
algorithms are:
1. Rate Monotonic scheduling
2. Earliest Deadline First scheduling
 Examples of Real-time Operating Systems
 Real-time operating systems(RTOS) are used in situations to handle real-life ri A
few examples of real-time operating systems include:
1. VxWorks: This OS is part of the Mars 2020 rover (2020 launch). Also, in the past, was
it
used in Phonix Mars lander, Boing 787, Honda Robot ASIMO etc.
2. QNX: QNX Neutrino TROS finds widespread use in embedded systems. Thus, it is
compatible with platforms like ARM and x86. Industries using QNS are automotive,
railway
transportation and health-care.
3. eCos: eCos is an open-source real-time operating system. Example of eCos use is Chibis-
M
microsatellite‘s attitude and stabilization control system.
4. RTLinux: RTLinux is a hard real-time operating system. It runs the Linux operating
Factors for selecting an RTOS
 Here, are essential factors that you need to consider for selecting
RTOS:
• Performance: Performance is the most important factor required to be considered while selecting for a
RTOS.
• Middleware: if there is no middleware support in Real time operating system, then the issue of time-taken
integration
of processes occurs.
• Error-free: RTOS systems are error-free. Therefore, there is no chance of getting an error while performing the
task.
• Embedded system usage: Programs of RTOS are of small size. So we widely use RTOS for embedded
systems.
• Maximum Consumption: we can achieve maximum Consumption with the help of RTOS.

• Task shifting: Shifting time of the tasks is very less.

• Unique features: A good RTS should be capable, and it has some extra features like how it operates to execute
a
command, efficient protection of the memory of the system, etc.
• 24/7 performance: RTOS is ideal for those applications which require to run 24/7.
 Difference between in GPOS and RTOS

❖ General-Purpose Operating System (GPOS) ❖ Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

❖ It used for desktop PC and laptop. ❖ It is only applied to the embedded application.

❖ Time-based scheduling used like round-robin

❖ Process-based Scheduling.
scheduling.
❖ Interrupt latency is not considered as important as in ❖ Interrupt lag is minimal, which is measured in a

RTOS. few microseconds.

❖ No priority inversion mechanism is present in the ❖ The priority inversion mechanism is current. So it can

system. not modify by the system.

❖ Kernel’s operation may or may not be preempted. ❖ Kernel’s operation can be preempted.

❖ Priority inversion remain unnoticed ❖ No predictability guarantees

Applications of Real Time Operating System

 Real-time systems are used in: • Defense application systems like

• Airlines reservation system. RADAR.

• Air traffic control system. • Networked Multimedia Systems

• Systems that provide immediate • Command Control Systems

updating. • Internet Telephony
• Used in any system that provides up • Anti-lock Brake Systems
to date and minute information on • Heart Pacemaker
stock prices.
 The advantages of real-time operating systems are as follows-
1. Maximum consumption –
Maximum utilization of devices and systems. Thus more output from all the resources.
Task Shifting –
Time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very less. For example, in older systems,
it
takes about 10 microseconds. Shifting one task to another and in the latest systems, it takes 3
microseconds.
Focus On Application –
Focus on running applications and less importance to applications that are in the queue.
Since the size
Real-Time of programs
Operating is small,
System RTOS can System
In Embedded also be embedded
– systems like in transport and
others.
Error Free –
These types of systems are error-free.
Memory Allocation –
Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.
The disadvantages of real- time operating systems are as follows-

1. Limited Tasks –

Very few tasks run simultaneously, and their concentration is very less on few applications to avoid
errors.
2. Use Heavy System Resources –

Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they are expensive as well.

3. Complex Algorithms –

The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to write on.

4. Device Driver And Interrupt signals –

It needs specific device drivers and interrupts signals to respond earliest to

interrupts.
5. Thread Priority –

It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to switching tasks.

6. Minimum Switching – RTOS performs minimal task switching.

 3.3 General and specific microprocessor
 Based on their specification, application and architecture ports
microprocessors are classified.  programmed for any generic control application. Example,
 Based on size of data bus: 8051.
 4-bit microprocessor  Special-purpose processors- designed to handle special
 8-bit microprocessor functions required for an application.

 16-bit microprocessor  Examples, digital signal processors and application-specific

integrated circuit (ASIC) chips
 32-bit microprocessor
 Based on architecture:
 Based on application:
• Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) processors
 General-purpose microprocessor- • Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) processors
 used in general computer system and can be used by
programmer for any application.
 Examples, 8085 to Intel Pentium.
 Microcontroller- microprocessor with built-in memory and
 3.4 Inter Process Communication?
 IPC is used for exchanging data between multiple threads in one or more processes or programs.

 The Processes may be running on single or multiple computers connected by a network.

 The full form of IPC is Inter-process communication.

 It is a set of programming interface which allow a programmer to coordinate activities among various
program processes which can run concurrently in an operating system.

 This allows a specific program to handle many user requests at the same time.

 Since every single user request may result in multiple processes running in the operating system, the
process may require to communicate with each other.

 Each IPC protocol approach has its own advantage and limitation, so it is not unusual for a single
program to use all of the IPC methods.
Approaches for Inter-
Process
Communication

•
Inter-Process Communication Approaches
 Pipes
 ) used for IPC

 a bucket. The
ocess is retrieved

Process

write () p [1] ..

1
.

read () p [2] l1
li
Message Passing:

 IPC, this is used by a process for communication and

synchronization.

 Processes can communicate without any shared variables, therefore

it can be used in a distributed environment on a network.
 It is slower than the shared memory technique.

 It has two actions sending (fixed size message) and receiving

messages.
 What are message queues?
 As shown in Figure 1, a message queue is a kernel object (i.e., a data
structure) through which messages are sent (i.e., posted) from either interrupt
service routines (ISRs) or tasks to another task (i.e., pending). An application
can have any number of message queues, each one having its own purpose.
For example, a message queue can be used to pass packets received from a
communication interface ISR to a task, which in turn would be responsible
for processing the packet. Another queue can be used to pass content to a
display task that will be responsible for properly updating a display.
 Message queues

Message
Queue

11111III Pend Task

Size ~
Task TImeout
 Message Queues
 An RTOS is software that manages the time of a central processing unit (CPU),

 a microprocessing unit (MPU), or even a digital signal processor (DSP) as efficiently as possible. Most RTO

kernels are written in C and require a small portion of code written in ASSEMBLY language to adapt the
kernel different CPU architectures.

 An RTOS kernel provides many useful services to a programmer, such as multitasking, interrupt management, inter

task communication through message queues, signaling, resource management, time management, memory
partiti management, and more.

 The application (i.e., end product) is basically split into multiple tasks, each one responsible for a portion of t

application. A task is a simple program that thinks it has the CPU all to itself. Each task is assigned a priority
base on the importance of the task.
 Direct Communication:
 In this type of inter-process communication process, should name each other
explicitly. In this method, a link is established between one pair of communicating
processes, and between each pair, only one link exists.

 Indirect Communication:

 Indirect communication establishes like only when processes share a common

mailbox each pair of processes sharing several communication links. A link can
communicate with many processes. The link may be bi-directional or
unidirectional.
 Shared Memory:
 Shared memory is a memory shared between two or more processes that are
established using shared memory between all the processes.

 This type of memory requires to protected from each other by synchronizing access
across all the processes.

 FIFO:

 Communication between two unrelated processes. It is a full-duplex method, which

means that the first process can communicate with the second process, and the opposite
can also happen.monstrate is provided below:

 Shared Data between the two Processes

3.5 Real-Time Task scheduling

 Real-Time Tasks scheduling in Real Time systems is

subjected to real-time,
i.e. response should be guaranteed within a specified timing
constraint or system should meet the specified deadline.
 For example, flight control systems, real-time monitors, etc.
 There are two types of tasks in real-time systems:
1. Periodic tasks
2. Dynamic tasks
 1. Periodic Tasks
• In periodic tasks, jobs are released at regular intervals. A periodic task is one that repeats itself after a fixed time
interval. A periodic task is denoted by four tuples: Ti = < Φi, Pi, ei, Di >
Where,

o Φi – is the phase of the task. Phase is the release time of the first job in the task. If the phase is not mentioned
then the release time of the first job is assumed to be zero.

o Pi – is the period of the task i.e. the time interval between the release times of two consecutive jobs.

o ei – is the execution time of the task.

o Di – is the relative deadline of the task.

 For example: Consider the task Ti with period = 5 and execution time = 3
Phase is not given so, assume the release time of the first job as zero. So the job of this task is first released at t = 0
then
it executes for 3s and then the next job is released at t = 5 which executes for 3s and then the next job is released at t =
10. So jobs are released at t = 5k where k = 0, 1, . . ., n
 2. Dynamic Tasks
• internal to the system. Dynamically arriving tasks can be categorized on their criticality and knowledge about
their occurrence times.

1. Aperiodic Tasks: In this type of task, jobs are released at arbitrary time intervals i.e.
randomly.
Aperiodic tasks have soft deadlines or no deadlines.
2. Sporadic Tasks: They are similar to aperiodic tasks i.e. they repeat at random instances. The
only
=(ei,
difference is that sporadic tasks have hard deadlines. A sporadic task is denoted by three tuples:
Ti
gi, Di)
Where
ei – the execution time of the task.
gi – the minimum separation between the occurrence of two consecutive instances of the task.
Di – the relative deadline of the task.
3.6 Dynamic allocation of task

 Dynamic task allocation is a class of task allocation in which the assignment of

robots to sub-tasks is a dynamic process and may need to be continuously
adjusted
in response to changes in the task environment or group performance.
 3.7 scheduling
 Scheduling is the process of arranging, controlling and optimizing work and workloads in
a production process or manufacturing process.
 Scheduling is used to allocate plant and resources, plan human resources, plan
machinery
production processes and purchase materials.
 In general, a scheduling scheme provides two features:
❖ An algorithm for ordering the use of system resources (in particular the CPUs)
❖ A means of predicting the worst-case behavior of the system when the scheduling algorithm is applied

 One common way of implementing hard real-time systems is to use a cyclic executive
 The real time scheduling is cyclic scheduling and priority scheduling
 3.7.1 Cyclic scheduling

 In cyclic scheduling, the precomputed schedule is repeated again and again.

 Each task in the task set is repeated identically in each cycle.

 Cyclic scheduling is simple. Each task is allowed to run to completion before it

hands over to the next. A task cannot be discontinued as it runs
 Cyclic scheduling

 Advantages
 Simple implementation (no real-time operating system is required).
 Low run-time overhead.
 It allows jitter control.

 Disadvantages
 It is not robust during overloads.
 It is difficult to expand the schedule.
 It is not easy to handle non periodic activities.
 3.7.2 Priority-based scheduling

 This is the most widely used approach and is the main

 focus of this course
 Each process has a fixed, static, priority which is computer pre-run-time
 The runnable processes are executed in the order determined by their
priority
 In real-time systems, the “priority” of a process is derived from its temporal
requirements, not its importance to the correct functioning of the system or its
integrity
 What is Priority Scheduling?

 Priority Scheduling is a method of scheduling processes that is based on priority.

 In this algorithm, the scheduler selects the tasks to work as per the priority.

 The processes with higher priority should be carried out first, whereas jobs with equal priorities are carried
out on a round-robin or FCFS basis.

 Priority depends upon memory requirements, time requirements, etc.

Types of Priority Scheduling
 Priority scheduling divided into two main types:

 Preemptive Scheduling

 In Preemptive Scheduling, the tasks are mostly assigned with their priorities. Sometimes it is important to run a

task with a higher priority before another lower priority task, even if the lower priority task is still running. The
lower priority task holds for some time and resumes when the higher priority task finishes its execution.

 Non-Preemptive Scheduling

 In this type of scheduling method, the CPU has been allocated to a specific process. The process that keeps the
CPU busy, will release the CPU either by switching context or terminating. It is the only method that can be
used for various hardware platforms. That’s because it doesn’t need special hardware (for example, a timer)
like preemptive scheduling.
 Characteristics of Priority Scheduling
• A CPU algorithm that schedules processes based on priority.

• It used in Operating systems for performing batch processes.

• If two jobs having the same priority are READY, it works on a FIRST COME, FIRST SERVED
basis.
• In priority scheduling, a number is assigned to each process that indicates its priority
level.
• Lower the number, higher is the
priority.
• In this type of scheduling algorithm, if a newer process arrives, that is having a higher priority than
the
currently running process, then the currently running process is preempted.
 Example

 Example of Priority Scheduling

 Consider following five processes P1 to Each process has
P5.
unique priority, time, and arrival its
burst time.
Process Priorit Burs time Arrival
P1 y t time

P2 1 4 0

P3 2 3 0

P4 1 7 6
3 4 11
P5
2 2 12

Step 0) At time=0, Process P1 and P2 arrive. P1 has higher priority than P2.
The execution begins with process P1, which has burst time 4. try to finish by
 Priority
 Scheduling
Advantages of priority scheduling lower priority processes may starve and be tponed
for an indefinite time.
• Easy to use scheduling method
• This scheduling algorithm may leave some low priority
• Processes are executed on the basis of priority so high
processes waiting indefinitely.
priority does not need to wait for long which saves time
• A process will be blocked when it is ready to run but has to
• This method provides a good mechanism where the relative
important of each process may be precisely defined. wait for the CPU because some other process is running
currently.
• Suitable for applications with fluctuating time and resource
requirements. • If a new higher priority process keeps on coming in the
ready queue, then the process which is in the waiting
 Disadvantages of priority scheduling state
may need to wait for a long duration of time.
• If the system eventually crashes, all low priority processes
get lost.

• If high priority processes take lots of CPU time, then the

3.8 multi-task and concurrency issue
 Multitasking is the capability of the operating system of running several applications at the same time. It is
therefore deeply related to the OS capability for managing shared resources, and in particular for
arbitrating conflicts resulting from resource over-commitment. In a multitasking environment, the totality
of the computer’s resources (memory, files, CPU time) are allocated to different applications, and they
are
managed in such a way that each one of them gets a share according to specific priority policies.
 concurrency as a property of systems where several processes are executing at the same time, and may or
may not interact with each other
 Concurrency is the tendency for things to happen at the same time in a
system.
Concurrency is a natural phenomenon, of course. In the real world, at any given time,
many
things are happening simultaneously. When we design software to monitor and control
real-
world systems, we must deal with this natural
concurrency.
3.9 Handling resource sharing and Dependencies

 An RTOS typically provides many services to ensure mutual exclusion:

 enabling/disabling interrupts, preventing the scheduler from switching tasks (a.k.a. locking/unlocking
the scheduler), semaphores and mutual exclusion semaphores.

 The actual mechanism used depends on the situation.

 If the application is accessing simple variables and can do so in just a few CPU clock cycles, then it is
probably best to disable interrupts, access the variables and re-enable interrupts.

 If accessing the resource will require thousands of CPU cycles, then it is best to use mutual exclusion
semaphores (a.k.a.. mutexes) because they avoid unbounded priority inversions, an issue that can occur
when using (regular) semaphores as they were defined by Edsger Dijkstra in the early 1960s.
 11. Synchronization techniques among threads
 When you create code that is thread safe but still benefits from sharing data or resources between threads,

 the most important aspect of programming becomes the ability to synchronize

threads.

 Synchronization is the cooperative act of two or more threads that ensures that each thread reaches a known point of operation in relationship to
other
threads before continuing. Attempting to share resources without correctly using synchronization is the most common cause of damage to
application
data.

 Typically, synchronizing two threads involves the use of one or more synchronization primitives. Synchronization primitives are low-level functions
or
application objects (not IBM® i objects) that your application uses or creates to provide the synchronization behavior that the application
requires.

• Here are the most common synchronization primitives in order of least to most computationally
expensive:

• Compare and swap Mutual exclusion (mutexes) and threads

• Semaphores and threads Condition variables and threads

• Threads as synchronization primitives Space location locks

• Object locks
3.11 Synchronization techniques in Distributed Systems
 Distributed System is a collection of computers connected via the high-speed
communication network.
 In the distributed system, the hardware and software components communicate and
coordinate their actions by message passing.
 Each node in distributed systems can share their resources with other nodes. So,
there is need of proper allocation of resources to preserve the state of resources and
help coordinate between the several processes.
 To resolve such conflicts, synchronization is used. Synchronization in distributed
systems is achieved via clocks.
 The physical clocks are used to adjust the time of nodes.
 Each node in the system can share its local time with
other nodes in the system. The time is set based on UTC
(Universal Time Coordination).
 UTC is used as a reference time clock for the nodes in the system.
 The clock synchronization can be achieved by 2 ways:
External and Internal Clock Synchronization.

1. External clock synchronization is the one in which an

external reference clock is present. It is used as a reference and
the nodes in the system can set and adjust their time
accordingly.
2. Internal clock synchronization is the one in which each node
shares its time with other nodes and all the nodes set and adjust
their times accordingly.
 There are 2 types of clock synchronization algorithms:
Centralized and Distributed.
1. Centralized is the one in which a time server is used as a reference. The single time server propagates
its time to the nodes and all the nodes adjust the time accordingly. It is dependent on single time server
so if that node fails, the whole system will lose synchronization.

Examples of centralized are- Berkeley Algorithm, Passive Time Server, Active Time Server
etc.
1. Distributed is the one in which there is no centralized time server present. Instead, the nodes adjust
their time by using their local time and then, taking the average of the differences of time with other
nodes. Distributed algorithms overcome the issue of centralized algorithms like the scalability and
single point failure.
Examples of Distributed algorithms are – Global Averaging Algorithm, Localized
Averaging
Algorithm, NTP (Network time protocol) etc.
 Logical Clocks

 Logical Clocks refer to implementing a protocol on all machines within your distributed system, so that the
machines are able to maintain consistent ordering of events within some virtual timespan. A logical clock is
a
mechanism for capturing chronological and causal relationships in a distributed system. Distributed systems
may have no physically synchronous global clock, so a logical clock allows global ordering on events from
different processes in such systems.
 3.12 real time application
❖ Real Time System is a system that is put through real time which means response is obtained within
a specified timing constraint or system meets the specified deadline.

❖ Real time system is of two types – Hard and Soft. Both are used in different
cases.
❖ Hard real time systems are used where even the delay of some nano or seconds are not allowed.
micro
❖ Soft real time systems provide some relaxation in time expression.

❖ Applications of Real-time System:

Real-time System has applications in various fields of the
technology.
❖
Common examples of real-time systems include
air traffic control
❖
systems,
❖ process control
systems,
❖ autonomous driving
systems.

❖ Here we will discuss the important applications of real-time

system.
 1. Industrial application:

 Real-time system has a vast and prominent role in modern industries.

Systems are made real time based so that maximum and accurate output
can be obtained. In order to such things real -time systems are used in
maximum industrial organizations. These system somehow lead to the
better performance and high productivity in less time. Some of the
examples of industrial applications are: Automated Car Assembly
Plant,
Chemical Plant etc
2. Medical Science application:
 In the field of medical science, real-time system has a huge impact on the human
health and treatment. Due to the introduction of real-time system in medical science,
many lives are saved and treatment of complex diseases has been turned down to
easier ways. People specially related to medical, now feel more relaxed due to these
systems. Some of the examples of medical science applications are: Robot, MRI
Scan, Radiation therapy etc.
3. Peripheral Equipment applications:
Real-time system has made the printing of large banners and such things very easier. Once these systems came into
use, the technology world became more strong. Peripheral equipment are used for various purposes. These systems
are embedded with micro chips and perform accurately in order to get the desired response. Some of the examples
of peripheral equipment applications are: Laser printer, fax machine, digital camera etc.
 4. application
Telecommunication s:
Real-time system map the world in such a way that it can be connected within a short time. Real-time system have
enabled the whole world to connect via a medium across internet. These systems make the people with each
other in no time and feel the real environment of togetherness. Some examples of telecommunication applications of
real-time systems are: Video Conferencing, Cellular system etc.

5. Defense applications:
In the new era of atomic world, defense is able to produce the missiles which have the dangerous powers and have
the great destroying ability. All these systems are real-time system and it provides the system to attack and also a
system to defend. Some of the applications of defense using real time systems are: Missile guidance system, anti-
missile system, Satellite missile system etc.

6. Aerospace applications:
The most powerful use of real time system is in aerospace applications. Basically hard real time systems are used in
aerospace applications. here the delay of even some nano second is not allowed and if it happens, system fails.
Some
of the applications of real-time systems in aerospace are: Satellite tracking system, Avionics, Flight simulation etc.
 3.13 SEMARTOS SUPPORT PHORES, QUEUES AND EVENT
 In order to manage a concurrent process in operating systems In 1965, Dutch
scientist Edsger Dijkstra proposed a new technique known as Semaphore.

 Semaphores are integer variables that are used to solve the critical section problem.

 They are primarily used in multiprocessing environments for process synchronization.

 It can be accessed through two atomic operations that are wait and signal.

 They can be considered abstract data types that can be used to solve race conditions in
programs.

 They can also be used for accessing files in the shared memory
 Multiple concurrent threads of execution within an application

must be able to synchronize their execution and coordinate

mutually exclusive access to shared resources.
 To address these requirements, RTOS kernels provide a semaphore
object and associated semaphore management services.

 Read thread and kernel it will be appear on your exam

In computer science, a semaphore is a variable
or abstract data type used to control access to a
common resource by multiple threads and avoid
critical section problems in a concurrent system
such as a multitasking operating system1. A
semaphore is an integer variable, shared among
multiple processes.
The main aim of using a semaphore is process
synchronization and access control for a common
 Con …
 A semaphore is like a key that allows a task to carry out some operation or to access a resource.

 If the task can acquire the semaphore, it can carry out the intended operation or access the resource.

 A single semaphore can be acquired a finite number of times.

 In this sense, acquiring a semaphore is like acquiring the duplicate of a key from an apartment manager when the apartment
manager runs out of duplicates, the manager can give out no more keys.

 Likewise, when a semaphore’s limit is reached, it can no longer be acquired until someone gives a key back or releases
the
semaphore.
 The kernel tracks the number of times a semaphore has been acquired or released by maintaining a token count, which is
initialized to a value when the semaphore is created.

 As a task acquires the semaphore, the token count is decremented; as a task releases the semaphore, the count is incremented.

 If the token count reaches 0, the semaphore has no tokens left.

 A requesting task, therefore, cannot acquire the semaphore, and the task blocks if it chooses to wait for the semaphore to
become available.
 Con ..
 The task-waiting list tracks all tasks blocked while waiting on an unavailable
semaphore.
 These blocked tasks are kept in the task-waiting list in either first in/first out (FIFO) order or highest priority first
order.
 When an unavailable semaphore becomes available, the kernel allows the first task in the task-waiting list to acquire
it.
 The kernel moves this unblocked task either to the running state, if it is the highest priority task, or to the ready state, until it becomes the
highest
priority task and is able to run.
 Note that the exact implementation of a task-waiting list can vary from one kernel to
another.
 A kernel can support many different types of semaphores, including binary, counting, and mutual-exclusion (mutex)
semaphores.

1- Binary Semaphores :-
 A binary semaphore can have a value of either 0 or
1.
 When a binary semaphore’s value is 0, the semaphore is considered unavailable (or empty); when the value is 1, the binary semaphore
is
considered available (or full).
 Note that when a binary semaphore is first created, it can be initialized to either available or unavailable (1 or 0,
respectively).
 The state diagram of a binary semaphore is shown in
 Con …
 Binary semaphores are treated as global resources, them.
which means they are shared among all tasks that
 Making the semaphore a global resource allows any task to release it, even if the task did not initially acquire it.

2- Counting Semaphores :-
 A counting semaphore uses a count to allow it to be acquired or released multiple times.

 When creating a counting semaphore, assign the semaphore a count that denotes the number of semaphore tokens it
has initially.

 If the initial count is 0, the counting semaphore is created in the unavailable state.

 If the count is greater than 0, the semaphore is created in the available state, and the number of tokens it has equals
its count, as shown in
 Con …
 One or more tasks can continue to acquire a no
token from the counting semaphore
tokens are left.
 When all the tokens are gone, the count equals 0, and the counting semaphore moves from the
available state to the unavailable state.

 To move from the unavailable state back to the available state, a semaphore token must be
released by any task.

 Note that, as with binary semaphores, counting semaphores are global resources that can be
shared by all tasks that need them.
• This feature allows any task to release a counting semaphore token.

• Each release operation increments the count by one, even if the task making this call did
not
acquire a token in the first place.
• Some implementations of counting semaphores might allow the count to be
bounded.
• A bounded count is a count in which the initial count set for the counting semaphore,
determined
when the semaphore was first created, acts as the maximum count for the
semaphore.
• An unbounded count allows the counting semaphore to count beyond the initial count to
the
maximum value that can be held by the count’s data type (Ex :- an unsigned integer or an
unsigned
long value).
Implementati Binary
on:
struct semaphore {
semaphores
{ 
 enum value(0, 1);  if (s.q is empty) {
 // q contains all Process Control Blocks  s.value = 1;
 (PCBs)  }
 // corresponding to processes got blocked  else {
 // while performing down operation.
 Queue<process> q;  // select a process from waiting queue
 P(semaphore s)  Process p = q.front();
 {  // remove the process from waiting as it has
 if (s.value == 1) {  been
 s.value = 0;  // sent for CS
 }  q.pop();
 else {  wakeup(p);
 // add the process to the waiting queue  }
 q.push(P) sleep(); }
 }
 }
• Counting Semaphores: They can have any value and are not restricted over a certain
domain. They can be used to control access to a resource that has a limitation on the
number of simultaneous accesses. The semaphore can be initialized to the number of
instances of the resource. Whenever a process wants to use that resource, it checks if
the number of remaining instances is more than zero, i.e., the process has an instance
available. Then, the process can enter its critical section thereby decreasing the value
of the counting semaphore by 1. After the process is over with the use of the instance
of the resource, it can leave the critical section thereby adding 1 to the number of
available instances of the resource.
Implementati Counting semaphore
on:
struct Semaphore { else
return;
int value; }

// q contains all Process Control Blocks(PCBs)

// corresponding to processes got blocked V(Semaphore s)
// while performing down operation. {
Queue<process> q; s.value = s.value +
1;
} P(Semaphore s) if (s.value <= 0) {
// remove process p from queue
{
s.value = s.value - 1; Process p = q.pop();
if (s.value < 0) { wakeup(p);
}
// add process to queue else
return;
// here p is a process which is
currently executing }
q.push(p);
 queue and event

 Events are similar to Semaphores in a sense that each instance of an Event object actually contains a
Semaphore.

 The added advantage of using Events lie in the fact that tasks can be notified of specific events in a thread-safe
manner.

 Queue: a FIFO buffer that allows for passing arbitrary messages to tasks.

 Typically, each queue has just one specific receiver task and one or several sender tasks.

 Queues are often used as input for server-style tasks that provide multiple services/commands. A common design
pattern in that case is to have common data structure for such messages consisting of a command code and
parameters, and use a switch statement in the receiver task to handle the different message codes.

 If using a union structure for the parameters, or even just a void pointer, the parameters can be defined separately
for each command code.
Than you !!!
!