INSTRUMENTATION AND

PROCESS CONTROL

GWYN TUMULAK BALOLONG

JOSEF VILL S. VILLANUEVA, PH.D.

Instrumentation
 The science of automated measurement
and control.
Process
 An operation that uses resources to
transform inputs into outputs. It is the
resource that provides the energy into
the process for the transformation to
occur.
Hot Water Generation

Cold Water – Input to the process

Hot Water – Output of the process
Steam – Resource that provides energy for the transformation to occur
within the heat
exchanger plates
 What is Control ?
 The use of algorithms and feedback in
engineered systems. Control includes such
examples as feedback loops in electronic
amplifiers, setpoint controllers in chemical and
materials processing, “fly-by-wire” systems on
aircraft and even router protocols that control
traffic flow on the Internet. Emerging applications
include high confidence software systems, autonomous
vehicles and robots, real-time resource management
systems and biologically engineered systems. At its
core, control is an information science, and includes
the use of information in both analog and digital
representations.
 Modern Controller
 A modern controller senses the operation of a
system, compares that against the desired
behavior, computes corrective actions based
on a model of the system’s response to
external inputs and actuates the system to
effect the desired change. This basic feedback
loop of sensing, computation and actuation is the
central concept in control. The key issues in
designing control logic are ensuring that the
dynamics of the closed loop system are stable
(bounded disturbances give bounded errors) and
that they have additional desired behavior (good
disturbance rejection, fast responsiveness to
changes in operating point, etc).
Control
Process Control
 The act of controlling a final control
element to change the manipulated
variable to maintain the process
variable at a desired set point.
Hot Water Generation

Why Do We Need Process
Control ?
 Safety : Personnel Safety, Environmental Safety and
Equipment Safety. The safety of plant personnel and
community is the highest priority in any operation. Example of
safety in a common heat exchanger process is the installation
of a pressure relief valve in a steam supply.
 Quality : In blending and batching operations, control
systems maintain the proper ratio of ingredients to deliver a
consistent product.
 Profit: All processes experience variations and product
quality demands that we operate within constraints. A batch
system may require +- 0.5% tolerance on each ingredient
addition to maintain the quality. Profits will be maximized the
closer the process is operated to these constraints.
Why Do We Need Process
Control ?
Open Loop
 the controller output is not a function of the process
variable.
 In open loop control we are not concerned that a particular
Set Point be maintained, the controller output is fixed at a
value until it is changed by an operator. Many processes
are stable in an open loop control mode and will maintain
the process variable at a value in the absence of a
disturbance.
Disturbances
 are uncontrolled changes in the process inputs or
resources.
 all processes experience disturbances and with open loop
control this will always result in deviations in the process
variable; and there are certain processes that are only
stable at a given set of conditions and disturbances will
cause these processes to become unstable. But for some
processes open loop control is sufficient. Cooking on a
stove top is an obvious example. The cooking element is
fixed at high, medium or low without regard to the actual
temperature of what we are cooking.
 Open Loop System

 This is a stable process, and given no disturbances we would find that the process variable
would stabilize at a value for a given valve position, say 110°F when the valve was 50%
open. Furthermore, the temperature would remain at 110°F as long as there were no
disturbances to the process.
 However, if we had a fluctuation in steam supply pressure, or if the temperature of the
water entering the heat exchanger were to change (this would be especially true for
recirculation systems with a sudden change in demand) we would find that the process
would move to a new point of stability with a new exit temperature.
Closed Control Loop
 the controller output is determined by difference between
the process variable and the Set Point. Closed loop control
is also called feedback or regulatory control
 The output of a closed loop controller is a function of the
error.
 Error is the deviation of the process variable from the Set
Point and is defined as E = SP - PV.
Closed Control Loop System
 How the valve responds to the
controller output and its
corresponding effect on the
manipulated variable (steam
pressure) will determine the
final effect on the process
variable (temperature). The
quality and responsiveness of
the temperature measurement
directly effects how the
controller sees its effect on the
process. Any filtering to diminish
the effects of noise will paint a
different picture of the process
that the controller sees. The
dynamic behaviors of all of the
elements in a control loop
superimpose to form a single
image of the process that is
presented to the controller. To
control the process requires
some understanding of each of
these elements.
Closed Control Loop
Elements
 The first step, naturally, is measurement. If we can’t measure something, it is really
pointless to try to control it. This “something” usually takes one of the following
forms in industry:
• Fluid pressure
• Fluid flow rate
• The temperature of an object
• Fluid volume stored in a vessel
• Chemical concentration
• Machine position, motion, or acceleration
• Physical dimension(s) of an object
• Count (inventory) of objects
• Electrical voltage, current, or resistance
 This final control device usually takes one of the following forms:
• Control valve (for throttling the flow rate of a fluid)
• Electric motor
• Electric heater
Closed Control Loop
Elements
Closed Control Loop
Elements
 Process: The physical system we are attempting to control or
measure. Examples: water filtration system, molten metal casting
system, steam boiler, oil refinery unit, power generation unit.
 Process Variable, or PV: The specific quantity we are
measuring in a process. Examples: pressure, level, temperature,
flow, electrical conductivity, pH, position, speed, vibration.
 Setpoint, or SP: The value at which we desire the process
variable to be maintained at. In other words, the “target” value
for the process variable.
 Primary Sensing Element, or PSE: A device directly sensing
the process variable and translating that sensed quantity into an
analog representation (electrical voltage, current, resistance;
mechanical force, motion, etc.). Examples: thermocouple,
thermistor, bourdon tube, microphone, potentiometer,
electrochemical cell, accelerometer.
Closed Control Loop
Elements
 Transducer: A device converting one standardized instrumentation
signal into another standardized instrumentation signal, and/or
performing some sort of processing on that signal. Often referred to
as a converter and sometimes as a “relay.” Examples: I/P converter
(converts 4- 20 mA electric signal into 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal), P/I
converter (converts 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal into 4-20 mA electric
signal), square-root extractor (calculates the square root of the input
signal).
 Transmitter: A device translating the signal produced by a primary
sensing element (PSE) into a standardized instrumentation signal
such as 3-15 PSI air pressure, 4-20 mA DC electric current, Fieldbus
digital signal packet, etc., which may then be conveyed to an
indicating device, a controlling device, or both.
 Lower- and Upper-range values, abbreviated LRV and URV,
respectively: the values of process measurement deemed to be
0% and 100% of a transmitter’s calibrated range. For example, if a
temperature transmitter is calibrated to measure a range of
temperature starting at 300 degrees Celsius and ending at 500
degrees Celsius, its LRV would be 300 oC and its URV would be 500
oC.
 Closed Control Loop
Elements
 Zero and Span: alternative descriptions to LRV and URV
for the 0% and 100% points of an instrument’s calibrated
range. “Zero” refers to the beginning-point of an
instrument’s range (equivalent to LRV), while “span” refers
to the width of its range (URV − LRV). For example, if a
temperature transmitter is calibrated to measure a range of
temperature starting at 300 degrees Celsius and ending at
500 degrees Celsius, its zero would be 300 oC and its span
would be 200 oC.
 Controller: A device receiving a process variable (PV)
signal from a primary sensing element (PSE) or transmitter,
comparing that signal to the desired value (called the
setpoint) for that process variable, and calculating an
appropriate output signal value to be sent to a final control
element (FCE) such as an electric motor or control valve.
 Final Control Element, or FCE: A device receiving the
signal output by a controller to directly influence the
process. Examples: variable-speed electric motor, control
valve, electric heater.
Closed Control Loop
Elements
 Manipulated Variable, or MV: The quantity in a process
we adjust or otherwise manipulate in order to influence the
process variable (PV). Also used to describe the output
signal generated by a controller; i.e. the signal
commanding (“manipulating”) the final control element to
influence the process.
 Automatic mode: When the controller generates an
output signal based on the relationship of process variable
(PV) to the setpoint (SP).
 Manual mode: When the controller’s decision-making
ability is bypassed to let a human operator directly
determine the output signal sent to the final control
element.
Closed Control Loop
Example
 The process of converting water into
steam is quite simple: heat up the
water until it boils. Anyone who has
ever boiled a pot of water for cooking
knows how this process works.
Making steam continuously,
however, is a little more complicated.
An important variable to measure
and control in a continuous boiler is
the level of water in the “steam
drum” (the upper vessel in a water-
tube boiler). In order to safely and
efficiently produce a continuous flow
of steam, we must ensure the steam
drum never runs too low on water, or
too high. If there is not enough water
in the drum, the water tubes may run
dry and burn through from the heat
of the fire. If there is too much water
in the drum, liquid water may be
carried along with the flow of steam,
causing problems downstream.
Transducer
 A device that converts a signal from one physical form to a
corresponding signal having a different physical form
 Transducers are ENERGY CONVERTERS or MODIFIERS

Physical form: mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric,

optical, chemical…
Sensor
 A transducer that converts a physical stimulus from one form into a more
useful form to measure the stimulus
 Sensor converts the physical quantity to signal that can be recognized by
other components such as display, transmitter and etc.

Two basic categories:

1. Analog
2. Discrete
 Binary
 Digital (e.g., pulse counter)
 Actuators
 Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal into a change in a
physical parameter
 The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or velocity)
 An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type of physical quantity
into some alternative form
 An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command signal, so an amplifier
may be required to provide sufficient power to drive the actuator

Types of Actuators
1. Electrical actuators
 Electric motors
 DC servomotors
 AC motors
 Stepper motors
 Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators
 Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal
3. Pneumatic actuators
 Use compressed air as the driving force
Sensors and Actuators
 Sensor: an input transducer (i.e., a microphone)
 Actuator: an output transducer (i.e., a loudspeaker)
Measurement
 The process of comparing an unknown quantity with a standard of the
same quantity (measuring length) or standards of two or more related
quantities (measuring velocity)
A Simple Instrument Model

 A observable variable X is obtained from the measurand

- X is related to the measurand in some KNOWN way (i.e., measuring mass)
 The sensor generates a signal variable that can be manipulated:
- Processed, transmitted or displayed
 In the example above the signal is passed to a display, where a measurement can
be taken
Measurement Example
Sensors/Transducers Selection
Consideration
Selection of a sensor/transducer (S/T) typically requires a
consideration of
• Operating Range (e.g. +/-100 rad/s)
• Sensitivity - defined as the change in output for a given change in input,
usually a unit change in
input. Sensitivity represents the slope of the transfer function.
(e.g. 0.01 V/rad/s)
• Speed of Response (e.g. Bandwidth of 50 Hz)
• Environmental Conditions (e.g. -10 to +80 deg C)
• Accuracy - the capacity of a measuring instrument to give RESULTS close
to the TRUE VALUE of
the measured quantity (e.g. 3% FS)
 Sensor Classification
 Sensor classification schemes range from very simple to the complex. One good
way to look at a sensor is to consider all of its properties, such as stimulus,
specifications, physical phenomenon, conversion mechanism, material and
application field.
 For machine tools, sensor's conversion phenomena are mainly physical
phenomena such as thermoelectric, photoelectric, photomagnetic,
electromagnetic, magnetoelectric, thermoelastic, thermomagnetic, thermooptic,
photoelastic, and so on. Stimulus is shown below:
Sensor Types
 Temperature: thermocouple, RTD, thermistor
 Pressure: bellows, bourdon tube, diaphragm
 Flow rate: orifice, venturi, magnetic, ultrasonic, Coliolis
effect
 Liquid level: float, differential pressure
 pH: pH electrode
 Viscosity: pressure drop across venturi or vane
deflection
 Composition: density, conductivity, GC, IR, NIR, UV
 Detection
 Transmitter
A transmitter is a device that produces an output signal, often in
the form of a 4–20 mA electrical current signal, although many
other options using voltage, frequency, pressure or Ethernet are
possible. This signal can be used for informational purposes, or it
can be sent to a PLC, DCS , Scada system, LabView or other type
of computerized controller, where it can be interpreted into
readable values and used to control other devices and processes
in the system.
Temperature
 The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment.
 Temperature is the measure of average molecular kinetic energy within a
substance. The concept is easiest to understand for gases under low
pressure, where gas molecules randomly shuffle about. The average
kinetic (motional) energy of these gas molecules defines temperature for
that quantity of gas. There is even a formula expressing the relationship
between average kinetic energy (Ek) and temperature (T) for a monatomic
(single-atom molecule) gas:

Where,
Ek = Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules (joules)
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 Å~ 10−23 joules/Kelvin)
T = Absolute temperature of gas (Kelvin)
Thermal Energy
 Thermal energy is a different concept: the quantity of total kinetic
energy for this random molecular motion. If the average kinetic
energy is defined as 3kT/2 , then the total kinetic energy for all
the molecules in a monatomic gas must be this quantity times the
total number of molecules (N) in the gas sample:
Thermal Energy
 This may be equivalently expressed in terms of the number of
moles of gas rather than the number of molecules (a staggeringly
large number for any realistic sample):

 Where,
Ethermal = Total thermal energy for a gas sample (joules)
n = Quantity of gas in the sample (moles)
R = Ideal gas constant (8.315 joules per mole-Kelvin)
T = Absolute temperature of gas (Kelvin)
Heat
 Heat is defined as the exchange of thermal energy from one
sample to another, by way of conduction (direct contact),
convection (transfer via a moving fluid), or radiation (emitted
energy); although you will often find the terms thermal energy
and heat used interchangeably.

 Temperature is a more easily detected quantity than heat. There

are many different ways to measure temperature, from a simple
glass-bulb mercury thermometer to sophisticated infra-red optical
sensor systems. Like all other areas of measurement, there is no
single technology that is best for all applications. Each
temperature-measurement technique has its own strengths and
weaknesses.
Bi-metal Temperature Sensors
 Solids tend to expand when heated. The amount that a solid sample will
expand with increased temperature depends on the size of the sample, the
material it is made of, and the amount of temperature rise. The following
formula relates linear expansion to temperature change:

Where,
l = Length of material after heating
lo = Original length of material
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
ΔT = Change in temperature

Here are some typical values of α for common metals:

• Aluminum = 25 x10−6 per degree C
• Copper = 16.6 x10−6 per degree C
• Iron = 12 x10−6 per degree C
• Tin = 20 x10−6 per degree C
• Titanium = 8.5x 10−6 per degree C
Bi Metal Strips
 Bond of two strips of metal together . The differential growth will result in
a bending motion that greatly exceeds the linear expansion.
 This bending motion is significant enough to drive a pointer mechanism,
activate an electromechanical switch, or perform any number of other
mechanical tasks, making this a very simple and useful primary sensing
element for temperature.
 If a bi-metallic strip is twisted over a long length, it will tend to un-twist as
it heats up. This twisting motion may be used to directly drive the needle
of a temperature gauge.
Bi Metal Strips
Filled-bulb Temperature
Sensors
 Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion to measure
temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a sealed system and then heated, the
molecules in that fluid will exert a greater pressure on the walls of the
enclosing vessel. By measuring this pressure, and/or by allowing the fluid
to expand under constant pressure, we may infer the temperature of the
fluid.
Class I and Class V systems use a liquid fill fluid (class V is mercury).
Class III systems use a gas fill fluid instead of liquid.
Filled-bulb Temperature
Sensors
Thermistors
 Thermistors are devices made of metal oxide which either
increase in resistance with increasing temperature (a positive
temperature coefficient) or decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature (a negative temperature coefficient). The thermistor
exhibits a large change in electrical resistance when subjected to
a relative small change in temperature. Temperature change can
be caused either by a change in the ambient temperature
external to the thermistor or, internally, by a change in the
current through the thermistor.
Thermistors
 Temperature Measuring Voltage Divider
Thermistors
 Temperature Measuring Voltage Divider
Thermistor Applications
 Thermistor Applications:
 PTC thermistors were used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays. A
degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and inexpensive.
 We can also use PTC thermistors as heater in automotive industry to provide additional heat
inside cabin with diesel engine or to heat diesel in cold climatic conditions before engine
injection.
 We can use PTC thermistors as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements
for fuses.
 We can also use NTC thermistors to monitor the temperature of an incubator.
 Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.
 We regularly use NTC thermistors in automotive applications.
 NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing industry, especially for food
storage systems and food preparation. Maintaining the correct temperature is critical to prevent
food borne illness.
 NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance industry for measuring
temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on
thermistors for proper temperature control.
 We can regularly use the Thermistors in the hot ends of 3D printers; they monitor the heat
produced and allow the printer’s control circuitry to keep a constant temperature for melting
the plastic filament.
 NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the
order of 10 K.
 NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits.
Thermistor Sample Circuit
Thermistor Characteristics
 RTD - Resistance Temperature
Detectors
 RTDs are devices made of pure metal (usually platinum or copper)
which always increase in resistance with increasing temperature. The
major difference between thermistors and RTDs is linearity: thermistors
are highly sensitive and nonlinear, whereas RTDs are relatively
insensitive but very linear. For this reason, thermistors are typically
used where high accuracy is unimportant. Many consumer-grade
devices use thermistors for temperature sensors.

Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs) relate resistance to temperature by the following

formula:
RT = Rref [1 + α(T − Tref )]

Where,
RT = Resistance of RTD at given temperature T (ohms)
Rref = Resistance of RTD at the reference temperature Tref (ohms)
α = Temperature coefficient of resistance (ohms per ohm/degree)

The following example shows how to use this formula to calculate the resistance of a “100 ohm”
platinum RTD with a temperature coefficient value of 0.00392 at a temperature of 35 degrees Celsius:
RT = 100 Ω[1 + (0.00392)(35o C − 0o C)]
RT = 100 Ω[1 + 0.1372]
RT = 100 Ω[1.1372]
 RTD – Reference Values
 Water’s melting/freezing point is the standard reference
temperature for most RTDs. Here are some typical values
of α for common metals:

• Nickel = 0.00672 Ω/ΩoC

• Tungsten = 0.0045 Ω/ΩoC
• Silver = 0.0041 Ω/ΩoC
• Gold = 0.0040 Ω/ΩoC
• Platinum = 0.00392 Ω/ΩoC
• Copper = 0.0038 Ω/ΩoC

100 Ω is a very common reference resistance (Rref ) for

industrial RTDs. 1000 Ω is another common reference
resistance. Compared to thermistors with their tens or even
hundreds of thousands of ohms’ nominal resistance, an RTD’s
resistance is comparatively small.
RTD Basic Circuit and Three Wire
Connection
RTD Advantages and Dis-
advantages
RTD Resistance Temperature
Sensitivity
Thermocouple
 When two dissimilar metal wires are joined together at one
end, a voltage is produced at the other end that is
approximately proportional to temperature. That is to say,
the junction of two different metals behaves like a
temperature-sensitive battery.
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
 Voltage Temperature Chart
Thermocouple Basic Setup
Optical Temperature
Sensing
Optical Temperature Sensing
Application
Optical Temperature Sensing
Devices
Level Measurement/Sensor
 Many industrial processes require the accurate
measurement of fluid or solid (powder, granule,etc.) height
within a vessel. Some process vessels hold a stratified
combination of fluids, naturally separated into different
layers by virtue of differing densities, where the height of
the interface point between liquid layers is of interest.
 Level Gauges (Sightglasses) - The level gauge, or sightglass is to
liquid level measurement as manometers are to pressure
measurement: a very simple and effective technology for direct
visual indication of process level. In its simplest form, a level
gauge is nothing more than a clear tube through which process
liquid may be seen.
Sightglass
Sightglass
 Hydrostatic Interface Level
Measurement
 Hydrostatic pressure sensors may be used to
detect the level of a liquid-liquid interface, if and
only if the total height of liquid sensed by the
instrument is fixed. A single hydrostatic-based
level instrument cannot discern between a
changing interface level and a changing total
level, so the latter must be fixed in order to
measure the former.
 One way of fixing total liquid height is to equip
the vessel with an overflow pipe, and ensure
that drain flow is always less than incoming flow
(forcing some flow to always go through the
overflow pipe). This strategy naturally lends
itself to separation processes, where a mixture
of light and heavy liquids are separated by their
differing densities:
Hydrostatic Level
Measurement
Displacement Level
Measurement
 Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect
liquid level by continuously measuring the weight of a rod
immersed in the process liquid. As liquid level increases, the
displacer rod experiences a greater buoyant force, making it
appear lighter to the sensing instrument, which interprets the loss
of weight as an increase in level and transmits a proportional
output signal.
 Ultrasonic Level
Measurement
 Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the
transmitter (located at some high point) to the surface of a process
material located further below. The time-of-flight for a sound pulse
indicates this distance, and is interpreted by the transmitter
electronics as process level. These transmitters may output a signal
corresponding either to the fullness of the vessel (fillage) or the
amount of empty space remaining at the top of a vessel (ullage).
Ultrasonic Level
Measurement
 Radar Level Measurement
 Radar level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at
some high point) to the surface of a process material located further below in
much the same way as ultrasonic transmitters – by measuring the time-of-flight
of a traveling wave. The fundamental difference between a radar instrument and
an ultrasonic instrument is the type of wave used: radio waves instead of sound
waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic in nature (comprised of alternating
electric and magnetic fields), and very high frequency (in the microwave
frequency range – GHz). Sound waves are mechanical vibrations (transmitted
from molecule to molecule in a fluid or solid substance) and of much lower
frequency (tens or hundreds of kilohertz – still too high for a human being to
detect as a tone) than radio waves.
Radar Level Measurement
Radar Level Transmitter
Application
Radar Level Transmitter
Application
Weight Based Level
Instrument
 Weight-based level instruments sense process level in
a vessel by directly measuring the weight of the
vessel. If the vessel’s empty weight (tare weight) is
known, process weight becomes a simple calculation
of total weight minus tare weight. Obviously, weight-
based level sensors can measure both liquid and solid
materials, and they have the benefit of providing
inherently linear mass storage measurement25. Load
cells (strain gauges bonded to a steel element of
precisely known modulus) are typically the primary
sensing element of choice for detecting vessel weight.
As the vessel’s weight changes, the load cells
compress or relax on a microscopic scale, causing the
strain gauges inside to change resistance. These small
changes in electrical resistance become a direct
indication of vessel
weight.
Weight Based Load Cell
Capacitive Level
Measurement
 Capacitive level instruments measure electrical
capacitance of a conductive rod inserted vertically
into a process vessel. As process level increases,
capacitance increases between the rod and the vessel
walls, causing the instrument to output a greater
signal.
 The basic principle behind capacitive level
instruments is the capacitance equation:

C =eA/d

Where,
C = Capacitance
e= Permittivity of dielectric (insulating) material between plates
A = Overlapping area of plates
d = Distance separating plates
Capacitive Level
Measurement
Capacitive Level Measurement
Circuit
Detection Sensors
 An industrial detection sensor is a specialized
type of measurement device used in automated
system. Its function is to detect the absence ,
presence, or distance of an object from reference
point. The object to be detected is referred to as
target. When the target is detected, the function
of the sensor is to send a signal to the load. A
load is defined as a device to which the output of
the sensor is connected.
Detection Sensors – Limit
Switch
 The most fundamental detection sensor is the Limit switch.
By using some actuator type of lever, it converts
mechanical motion into electrical signals.
Proximity Detectors
 Proximity Detectors are electronic sensors that
indicate the presence of an object without
making physical contact. The detector normally
does not respond by producing a linear output
signal proportional to the distance of the object
to the sensor. Instead , the output turns on and
off.
Inductive Proximity Sensor
Inductive Proximity Sensor
Circuit
Capacitive Proximity
Switches
Photoelectric Sensors

 Sample applied circuit

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
Pressure Transmitter
 Pressure transmitters - devices designed
to measure fluid pressure and transmit
that information via electrical signals
such as the 4-20 mA analog standard, or
in digital form such as HART or
FOUNDATION Fieldbus.
Pressure Transmitter
Technologies
Piezoresistive (strain gauge)
Sensors
 Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a resistance that
changes value with applied pressure. The strain gauge is a classic example
of a piezoresistive element:

 As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the application of force, the

conductors of the strain gauge are similarly deformed. Electrical resistance of
any conductor is proportional to the ratio of length over cross-sectional area (R ∝
L/A), which means that tensile deformation (stretching) will increase electrical
resistance by simultaneously increasing length and decreasing cross-sectional
area while compressive deformation (squishing) will decrease electrical
resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and increasing cross-sectional
area.
Strain Gauge Sensor
 Differential Capacitance
Sensors
 Differential Capacitance Sensor - the sensing element is a taut metal diaphragm located
equidistant between two stationary metal surfaces, forming a complementary pair of
capacitances. An electrically insulating fill fluid (usually a liquid silicone compound)
transfers motion from the isolating diaphragms to the sensing diaphragm, and also
doubles as an effective dielectric for the two capacitors:

 Any difference of pressure across the cell will cause the diaphragm to flex in the direction
of least pressure. The sensing diaphragm is a precision-manufactured spring element,
meaning that its displacement is a predictable function of applied force. The applied
force in this case can only be a function of differential pressure acting against the surface
area of the diaphragm in accordance with the standard force-pressure-area equation F =
PA. In this case, we have two forces caused by two fluid pressures working against each
other, so our force-pressure-area equation may be rewritten to describe resultant force
as a function of differential pressure (P1 − P2) and diaphragm area: F = (P1 − P2)A.
Since diaphragm area is constant, and force is predictably related to diaphragm
displacement, all we need now in order to infer differential pressure is to accurately
Resonant Element Sensors
 Force-balance Pneumatic Pressure
Transmitter
 Force-balance pneumatic pressure transmitter - balancing a
sensed differential pressure with an adjustable air pressure which
becomes a pneumatic output signal:
 Force-balance Pneumatic Pressure
Transmitter
 Differential pressure is sensed by the same type of liquid-filled
diaphragm capsule, which transmits force to the force bar. If
the force bar moves out of position due to this applied force, a
highly sensitive electromagnetic sensor detects it and causes
an electronic amplifier to send a different amount of electric
current to a force coil. The force coil presses against the range
bar which pivots to counteract the initial motion of the force
bar. When the system returns to equilibrium, the milliampere
current through the force coil will be a direct, linear
representation of the process fluid pressure applied to the
diaphragm capsule.
Pressure-based Flowmeters
Pressure-based Flowmeters
Differential Pressure Instrument
Flowmeter
 This quadratic relationship between flow and pressure drop due to fluid
acceleration requires us to mathematically “condition” or “characterize”
the pressure signal sensed by the differential pressure instrument in order
to arrive at an expressed value for flow rate. The customary solution to
this problem is to incorporate a “square root” function between the
transmitter and the flow indicator, as shown in the following diagram:
 Laminar Flowmeters
 Laminar flow is a condition of fluid motion where viscous (internal fluid friction) forces greatly
overshadow inertial (kinetic) forces. A flowstream in a state of laminar flow exhibits no
turbulence, with each fluid molecule traveling in its own path, with limited mixing and collisions
with adjacent molecules. The dominant mechanism for resistance to fluid motion in a laminar
flow regime is friction with the pipe or tube walls. Laminar flow is qualitatively predicted by low
values of Reynolds number.
 This pressure drop created by fluid friction in a laminar flowstream is quantifiable, and is
expressed in the Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
Turbine Flowmeters
 Turbine flowmeters use a free-spinning turbine wheel to
measure fluid velocity, much like a miniature windmill
installed in the flow stream. The fundamental design goal
of a turbine flowmeter is to make the turbine element as
free-spinning as possible, so no torque will be required to
sustain the turbine’s rotation. If this goal is achieved, the
turbine blades will achieve a rotating (tip) speed that
equalizeswith the linear velocity of the fluid:
 Vortex Flowmeters
 When a fluid moves with high Reynolds number past a
stationary object (a “bluff body”), there is a tendency for the
fluid to form vortices on either side of the object. Each vortex
will form, then detach from the object and continue to move
with the flowing gas or liquid, one side at a time in alternating
fashion. This phenomenon is known as vortex shedding, and
the pattern of moving vortices carried downstream of the
stationary object is known as a vortex street.
 It is commonplace to see the effects of vortex shedding on a
windy day by observing the motion of flagpoles, light poles,
and tall smokestacks. Each of these objects has a tendency to
oscillate perpendicular to the direction of the wind, owing to
the pressure variations caused by the vortices as they
alternately form and break away from the object:
Vortex Flowmeters
Vortex Flowmeter
Transmitter
 Magnetic Flowmeters
 When an electrical conductor moves perpendicular to a magnetic field,
a voltage is induced in that conductor perpendicular to both the
magnetic flux lines and the direction of motion. This phenomenon is
known as electromagnetic induction, and it is the basic principle upon
which all electro-mechanical generators operate.
Magnetic Flowmeters
Magnetic Flowmeter
 Ultrasonic Flowmeters
 Ultrasonic flowmeters measure fluid velocity by passing high-
frequency sound waves along the fluid flow path. Fluid motion
influences the propagation of these sound waves, which may then
be measured to infer fluid velocity. Two major sub-types of
ultrasonic flowmeters exist: Doppler and transit-time. Both types of
ultrasonic flowmeter work by transmitting a high-frequency sound
wave into the fluid stream (the incident pulse) and analyzing the
received pulse. Doppler flowmeters exploit the Doppler effect,
which is the shifting of frequency resulting from waves emitted by
or reflected by a moving object. Doppler flowmeters bounce sound
waves off of bubbles or particulate material in the flow stream,
measure the frequency shift, and infer fluid velocity from the
magnitude of that shift.
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
 Transit-time flowmeters, sometimes called
counterpropagation flowmeters, use a pair of opposed
sensors to measure the time difference between a sound
pulse traveling with the fluid flow versus a sound pulse
traveling against the fluid flow. Since the motion of fluid
tends to carry a sound wave along, the sound pulse
transmitted downstream will make the journey faster than
a sound pulse transmitted upstream:
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Transmitter
 Weighfeeder
 Weighfeeder, used to measure the flow of solid material such as
powders and grains. One of the most common weighfeeder
designs consists of a conveyor belt with a section supported by
rollers coupled to one or more load cells, such that a fixed length
of the belt is continuously weighed:
Two-electrode Conductivity
Probes
Two Electrodes Conductivity
Probes
Four-electrode Conductivity
Probes
 Commonly employed to make precise resistance
measurements for scientific experiments in laboratory
conditions, as well as measuring the electrical resistance of
strain gauges and other resistive sensors, the four-wire
technique uses four conductors to connect the resistance
under test to the measuring instrument:
Four-electrode Conductivity
Probes
pH Measurement
 pH is the measurement of the hydrogen ion activity in a
liquid solution. It is one of the most common forms of
analytical measurement in industry, because pH has a
great effect on the outcome of many chemical processes.
Food processing, water treatment, pharmaceutical
production, steam generation (thermal power plants), and
alcohol manufacturing are just some of the industries
making extensive use of pH measurement (and control).
pH is also a significant factor in the corrosion of metal
pipes and vessels carrying aqueous (water-based)
solutions, so pH measurement and control is important in
the life-extension of these capital investments.
pH Measurement
pH Measurement
 Some Final Control
Elements
 Control valve - works to restrict the flow of fluid through a
pipe at the command of a remotely sourced signal, such as the
signal from a loop controller or logic device (such as a PLC), or
even a manual (“hand”) interface controlled by a human
operator.
Some Final Control
Elements
 Damper (otherwise known as a
louvre) - a multi-element flow control
device generally used to throttle large
flows of air at low pressure. Dampers
find common application in furnace and
boiler draft control, and in HVAC
(Heating, Ventilation, and Air
Conditioning) systems.
. Radial-vane dampers use multiple
vanes arranged like petals of a flower to
throttle flow through a circular opening.
A photograph of a radial-vane damper
is shown here (note the levers and
linkages on the periphery of the tube,
synchronizing the motions of the eight
vanes so they rotate at the same
angle):
Some Final Control
Elements
 Pneumatic actuators - uses air pressure pushing against
either a flexible diaphragm or a piston to move a valve
mechanism.
 Some Final Control
Elements
 Hydraulic actuators - uses liquid pressure rather than gas
pressure to move the valve mechanism. Nearly all hydraulic
actuator designs use a piston rather than a diaphragm to
convert fluid pressure into mechanical force.

 A hydraulic piston actuator attached to a large shut-off valve (used for on/off control rather than
throttling) . Two hydraulic cylinders may be seen above the round valve body, mounted horizontally.
Like the pneumatic piston valve shown earlier, this valve actuator uses a rack-and-pinion
mechanism to convert the hydraulic pistons’ linear motion into rotary motion to turn the valve trim.
 Variable Speed Motor
Control
 Modern power electronics provide the means to electronically
control the speed of almost any type and size of electric motor,
using a device called a motor drive. DC motor drives vary
voltage and current to the armature and field windings of the
motor. In general, DC motor speed is directly proportional to
armature voltage, and inversely proportional to field current. AC
motor drives vary the frequency2 of the power applied to the
motor’s stator windings, because frequency is what establishes
the speed of the stator’s rotating magnetic field which the rotor
follows.
Some Final Control
Elements
 Most industrial DC motors are built with multiple armature
coils. Shown is a large (1250 horsepower) DC motor used
to propel a ferry ship is shown here, with the field and
armature poles clearly seen (appearing much like spokes in
a wheel).
What are the Standard
Instrumentation Signals
Transmission ?
Analog
Standard instrument signals for controllers to accept
as inputs from instrumentation and outputs to final
control elements are pneumatic ( 3-15 Psig),
current loop(4-20mA) and 0 to 10 volt.

Digital
Fieldbus
HART
Modbus
 Pneumatic Signal Standard-
Analog
 Before 1960 pneumatic signals were used almost exclusively to
transmit measurement and control information. Today we still
commonly find 3 to 15 psig used as the final signal to a
modulating valve. Where the final control element requires a
pneumatic signal, in most cases the controller outputs a standard
electrical signal and a transducer between the controller and the
final control element converts the signal to 3 to 15 psig.
 Most often an I/P (I to P) transducer is used. This converts a 4-20
mA signal (I) into a pressure signal (P).
 This conversion process is normally linear where the pneumatic
signal is given by Signal psig = ( % Controller Output x12 psig)
+ 3psig .
 If the controller output is 40%, then the pneumatic signal from
the I/P transducer is Signal psig = ( 40% x12 psig ) + 3psig =
4.8psig + 3psig = 7.8psig .
Current Loop - Analog
 4-20 milliamp current loops are the signal
workhorses in many processes. A DC milliamp current
is transmitted through a pair of wires from a sensor to a
controller or from a controller to its final control element.
Current loops are used because of their immunity to noise
and the distances that the signal can be transmitted. Since
the signal being transmitted is current the voltage drop
that occurs across conductors does not affect the signal, it
just limits the length of the signal cable; and induced
voltages do not affect the signal.
0 - 10 V - Analog
 0 to 10 volt is not commonly used in many control
systems because this signal is susceptible to
induced noise and the distance of the instrument or
final control element is limited due to voltage drop.
You may find 0-10 volt signals used in control systems
providing the speed reference to variable speed drives. For
this application the cabling from the controller to the drive
is typically confined to a control panel, meaning the cabling
distances are short and electrical noise is more easily
controlled.
4 – 20mA Signalling
 Two different 4-20 mA signals: one to represent the
process variable (PV) and one to represent the command
signal to the final control element (the “manipulated
variable” or MV).
4-20mA Analog Signalling
 A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents
some signal along a 0 to 100 percent
scale. Usually, this scale is linear as shown
by this graph:
 A 4 to 20 mA current signal represents
some signal along a 0 to 100 percent
scale. Usually, this scale is linear as shown
by this graph:
 Being a linear function, we may use the
standard slope-intercept linear equation to
relate signal percentage to current values:
 y = mx + b
Where, y = Output from instrument
x = Input to instrument
m = Slope
b = y-intercept point (i.e. the live zero of the
instrument’s range)
4-20mA Signalling
4-20mA Signalling
4-20mA Signalling
4-20mA Signalling Graphical
Representation
 What are the Modes of Closed Loop
Control?
 Closed loop control can be Manual, On-Off, PID, Advanced
PID (ratio, cascade, feed-forward) or Model Based
depending on the algorithm that determines the controller
output based on the error.
Manual Control
 an operator directly manipulates the controller output to the
final control element to maintain a Set Point.

 we have placed an operator at the steam valve of the heat exchanger. Their only duty is to
look at the temperature of the water exiting the heat exchanger and adjust the steam valve
accordingly; we have a manual control system. While such a system would work, it is costly
(we're employing someone to just turn a valve), the effectiveness depends on the
experience of the operator, and as soon as the operator walks away we are in open loop.
 On-Off Control
 The technical term for a control algorithm that merely checks for the process
variable exceeding or falling below setpoint . In colloquial terms, it is known as
bang-bang control, since the manipulated variable output of the controller
rapidly switches between fully “on” and fully “off” with no intermediate state.
 provides a controller output of either on or off in response to error.

 As an on-off controller only proves a controller output hat is either on or off, on-off control requires final
control elements that have two command positions: on-off, open-closed .
On Off Control Graph
 PID Control
 PID control provides a controller output that modulates from 0
to 100% in response to error.
 As an on-off controller only proves a controller output that is
either on or off, on-off control requires devices that have two
command positions: on-off, open-closed. As a PID controller
provides a modulating controller output, PID control requires
final control elements that have can accept a range of
command values, such as valve position or pump speed.
 To modulate is to vary the amplitude of a signal or a position
between two fixed points.
 The advantage of PID control over on-off Control is the ability to
operate the process with smaller error with less wear and tear
on the final control elements.
PID Control System
 Proportional Only Control
 any form of controller where the output is a direct function of process variable (PV) and
setpoint (SP)
 sometimes called gain or sensitivity – is a control action reproducing changes in input as
changes in output. Proportional controller action responds to present changes in input by
generating immediate and commensurate changes in output. When you think of “proportional
action” (P), think prompt: this control action works immediately (never too soon or too late) to
match changes in the input signal.

 Error may be calculated as SP−PV or as PV−SP, depending on whether or not the

controller must produce an increasing output signal in response to an increase in
the process variable (“direct” acting), or output a decreasing signal in response to
an increase in the process variable (“reverse” acting)
 Proportional Only Control
 In the proportional-only equation shown earlier, the degree of
proportional action was specified by the constant Kp, called
gain. However, there is another way to express the sensitivity of
proportional action, and that is to state the percentage of error
change necessary to make the output (m) change by 100%.
Mathematically, this is the inverse of gain, and it is called
proportional band (PB)

 Gain is always specified as a unitless value2 , whereas

proportional band is always specified as a percentage. For
example, a gain value of 2.5 is equivalent to a proportional band
value of 40%, because the error input to this controller must
change by 40% in order to make the output change a full 100%.
Proportional Only Control
Proportional Only Control
 • Proportional band = 20%; Gain = 5 . . . or . . .
 • Gain = 20; Proportional band = 5%
Proportional Only Control
Proportional Only Control

A characteristic deficiency of proportional control action, exacerbated with

low controller gain values, is a phenomenon known as proportional-only
offset where the PV never fully reaches SP.
Proportional Only Control
Proportional Only Offset
 If the controller has been controlling outlet temperature
exactly at setpoint (PV = SP), and then suddenly the inlet
feed temperature drops and remains colder than before.
Recall that the equation for a reverse-acting proportional
controller is as follows:
 Proportional Only Offset
 Imagine building your own cruise control system for your automobile based on the
proportional-only equation: the engine’s throttle position is a function of the
difference between PV (road speed) and SP (the desired “target” speed). Let us
further suppose that you carefully adjust the bias value of your cruise control
system to achieve PV = SP on level ground at a speed of 70 miles per hour (70% on
a 0 to 100 MPH speedometer scale), with the throttle at a position of 40%, and a
gain (Kp) of 2:

 Imagine now that after cruising precisely at setpoint (70% = 70 MPH), the road
begins to incline uphill for several miles. This, obviously, is a load on the cruise
control system. With the cruise control disengaged, the automobile would slow
down because the same throttle position (40%) sufficient to maintain setpoint (70
MPH) on level ground is not enough power to maintain that same setpoint on an
incline. With the cruise control engaged, the engine throttle will automatically open
further as speed drops. At a speed of 69 MPH, the throttle opens up to 42%. At a
speed of 68 MPH, the throttle opens up to 44%. Every drop in speed of 1 MPH
results in a 2% further-open throttle to send more power to the wheels.
 Proportional Only Offset
 Suppose the demands of this particular inclined road require a 50% throttle
position for this automobile to maintain a constant speed. In order for your
proportional-only cruise control system to deliver this necessary 50% throttle
position, the speed will have to “droop” by 5 MPH below setpoint:

 There is simply no other way for your proportional-only controller to automatically

achieve the requisite 50% throttle position aside from letting the speed sag below
setpoint by 5% (5 MPH). Given this fact, the only way the proportional-only cruise
control will ever return the speed to setpoint (70 MPH) is if and when the load
conditions change to allow for a lesser throttle position of 40%. So long as the load
demands a different throttle position than the bias value, the speed must deviate
from the setpoint value of 70 MPH.
 This necessary error developing between PV and SP is called proportional-only
offset, sometimes called droop. The amount of droop depends on how severe the
load change is, and how aggressive the controller responds (i.e. how much gain it
has).
 Integral (reset) Control
 sometimes called reset or floating control – is a control action
causing the output signal to change over time at a rate
proportional to the amount of error (the difference between PV
and SP values). Integral controller action responds to error
accumulated over time, ramping the output signal are far as it
needs to go to completely eliminate error.
Integral Reset Control
 Derivative (rate) Control
 sometimes called rate or pre-act – is a control action causing the output signal to be offset by
an amount proportional to the rate at which the input is changing. Derivative controller action
responds to how quickly the input changes over time, biasing the output signal
commensurate with that rate of input change.
 The final element of PID control is the “D” term, which stands for derivative. This is a calculus
concept like integral, except most people consider it easier to understand. Simply put,
derivative is the expression of a variable’s rate-of-change with respect to another variable.
Finding the derivative of a function (differentiation) is the inverse operation of integration.
With integration, we calculated accumulated value of some variable’s product with time. With
derivative, we calculate the ratio of a variable’s change per unit of time. Whereas integration
is fundamentally a multiplicative operation (products), differentiation always involves division
(ratios).
 A controller with derivative (or rate) action looks at how fast the process variable changes
per unit of time, and takes action proportional to that rate of change. In contrast to integral
(reset) action which represents the “impatience” of the controller, derivative (rate) action
represents the “caution” of the controller.
 If the process variable starts to change at a high rate of speed, the job of derivative action is
to move the final control element in such a direction as to counteract this rapid change, and
thereby moderate the speed at which the process variable changes. In simple terms,
derivative action works to limit how fast the error can change.
Derivative ( rate) Control
Derivative (rate) Control
Controller Types
Analog PID
Pneumatic/Electronic
Digital PID
Pneumatic/Electronic
Programmable Logic Controller
Direct Digital Control
IPC Common Platforms
 Distributed Control System
 Supervision Control and Data Acquisition
 Distributed Control System Platform
( Yokogawa )
Supervision Control and Data Acquisition
System
 What Instrument Properties Affect a
Process?
 The range of a sensor is the lowest and highest val
An RTD may have a specified range of -200o C to +560o C.
A temperature transducer with an RTD sensor may have a specified range of -10o C to +65o C. ues it can
measure within its specification.
 The span of a sensor is the high end of the Range minus the low end of the Range.
The RTD with a range of -200o C to +560o C would have a span of 760o C.
The RTD transducer with a range of -10o C to +65o C would have a span of 75o C.
 Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that the instrument can detect reliably.
 Accuracy of a measurement describes how close the measurement approaches the true value of the process
variable.
 Precision is the reproducibility with which repeated measurements can be made under identical conditions.
 The gain of an instrument is often call sensitivity. The sensitivity of a sensor is the ratio of the output signal to
the change in process variable.
 The dead time of an instrument is the time it takes for an instrument to start reacting to process change.
 Hysteresis is the difference in readings obtained when an instrument approaches a signal from opposite
directions, i.e., if an instrument reads a midscale value going from zero it can give a different reading from the
value after making a full-scale reading. This is due to stresses induced into the material of the instrument by
changing its shape in going from zero to full-scale deflection.
 Linearity is a measure of the proportionality between the actual value of a variable being measured and the
output of the instrument over its operating range.
Industrial Revolution
New Trends/Architecture
New Trends/Architecture
New Trends/Architecture
New Trends/Architecture
Thank You Very Much !

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