First Decade of Independence

(1947–1957)

Indian Foreign Policy

 KEY ASPECTS OF INDIAN FOREIGN POLICY

First Decade of Independence (1947–1957)

Introduction :

• The economy was fragile, the borders were volatile, and integrating 565 princely states into the Indian Union was a
monumental challenge.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Iron Man of India, works tirelessly to bring the princely states into the fold, sometimes
through negotiation, sometimes through force—like the military action in Hyderabad (Operation Polo), Junagarh.
• Meanwhile, in January 1948, tragedy strikes. Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation, is assassinated by Nathuram
Godse.
• As the chaos slowly settles, the Constituent Assembly works on drafting the nation’s guiding document—the Indian
Constitution.
• Finally, on January 26, 1950, India becomes a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic.
• With its constitutional foundations set, India braces for its first general elections in 1951-52 .
• Over 173 million citizens, many of whom have never voted before, prepare to choose their representatives. Ballot boxes
are carried on elephants in remote villages and boats in the backwaters of Kerala.
• The results are clear—Jawaharlal Nehru’s Indian National Congress (INC) secures a landslide victory, cementing his
• India’s economy is still agrarian, and industrial growth is sluggish.
• Nehru launches the First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956), focusing on agriculture, irrigation, and infrastructure.
• Large-scale projects like the Bhakra Nangal Dam and the Hirakud Dam promise to revolutionize Indian
agriculture.
• Education and health take center stage. The government establishes institutions like the Indian Institutes of
Technology (IITs) and expands literacy programs. The Community Development Program (1952) is launched to
uplift rural areas.

MAJOR EVENT : INDIA-PAKISTAN WAR OF 1947-1948 (FIRST KASHMIR WAR)

Background: The Accession of Jammu & Kashmir

• At the time of India’s Partition (August 15, 1947), princely states had the option to join India, join Pakistan, or
remain independent.
• The ruler of Jammu & Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh, initially wanted to stay independent.
• However, Pakistan pressured him to join and sent tribal militias and Pakistani forces into Kashmir in October
1947.
The Outbreak of War (October 1947 - December 1948)

A. Pakistan’s Invasion (October 1947)

• On October 22, 1947, thousands of tribal militias (Pashtun Lashkars), supported by Pakistani forces, invaded
Jammu & Kashmir.
• They quickly advanced towards Srinagar, committing massacres and looting along the way, especially in Baramulla.
• The Maharaja, fearing total loss of his kingdom, sought India’s help.

B. India’s Intervention (October 26, 1947)

• On October 26, 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession, formally making Jammu &
Kashmir a part of India.
• India airlifted troops to Srinagar on October 27, 1947, and launched a counteroffensive.
• The Indian Army pushed back Pakistani invaders and secured Srinagar, Baramulla, and key areas.

C. Stalemate and Ceasefire (1948)

• Fighting continued throughout 1948, with India making territorial gains.
• However, Pakistan reinforced its positions in parts of western Kashmir, now known as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir
(PoK).
• As international pressure increased, India took the matter to the United Nations (UN) in January 1948.
3. United Nations Mediation & Ceasefire (1949)
• The UN brokered a ceasefire between India and Pakistan on January 1, 1949.
• As per the ceasefire terms, Kashmir was divided along the Line of Control (LoC):
• India retained about 65% of the territory, including Jammu, Srinagar, and Ladakh.
• Pakistan occupied about 35%, now called Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK), including Gilgit-Baltistan
and Azad Kashmir.
• The UN recommended a plebiscite (referendum) to determine Kashmir’s future, but it was never held due to
Pakistan’s refusal to withdraw its troops.

4. Consequences of the War

• Permanent Division of Kashmir – The war resulted in the division of Kashmir, with tensions continuing to this
day.
Creation of the Line of Control (LoC) – The UN-mediated ceasefire line later became the LoC, which remains
the de facto border.
Pakistan’s Continued Aggression – The war set the stage for future conflicts (1965, 1971, 1999 Kargil War).
 Republic Day is celebrated on 26th January 1950 instead of 26th November 1949
because of historical and symbolic reasons.

1. Adoption vs. Enforcement of the Constitution

• On 26th November 1949, the Constitution of India was adopted by the Constituent Assembly.
• However, it came into effect on 26th January 1950, making India a sovereign, democratic republic.

2. Symbolic Importance of 26th January

• 26th January was chosen to honor the historic "Purna Swaraj" (Complete Independence) Resolution passed
on 26th January 1930 by the Indian National Congress in Lahore.
• This day was observed as Independence Day until India actually gained independence on 15th August 1947.
• To retain its significance, 26th January was selected as the day when the Constitution would come into force.

3. Transition from Dominion to Republic

• Before 26th January 1950, India was a Dominion of the British Commonwealth under King George VI.
• On 26th January 1950, India officially became a Republic with Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its first President.
 FOREIGN POLICY FRONT

1. NON-ALIGNMENT AND THE COLD WAR

• India chose not to align with either the United States (USA) or the Soviet Union (USSR) in the emerging Cold
War conflict.
• This policy was formalized with the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), which India later helped establish in 1961.
• Nehru’s idea was to maintain strategic autonomy while advocating for world peace.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

• Origins: Founded in 1961 during the Cold War by leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Josip Broz Tito
(Yugoslavia), Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt), Sukarno (Indonesia), and Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana).
• Purpose: To provide an independent path for nations that did not wish to align with either the USA-led Western
bloc or the Soviet-led Eastern bloc.
• Focus: Advocates anti-colonialism, sovereignty, development, disarmament, and economic cooperation
among developing nations.
• Membership: Primarily developing countries from Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Neutrality
• Definition: A legal status in which a state does not participate in wars or military alliances (e.g., Switzerland
during World War II).
• Legal Basis: Governed by international laws like the Hague Conventions of 1907, requiring neutral states to
avoid supporting any warring faction.
• Focus: Military non-involvement and impartiality in conflicts.
• Examples: Switzerland, Austria (after 1955), and Ireland.
Feature Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Neutrality

Political Stance Independent but often engaged in Avoids political and military
global politics. entanglements

Military Alliances Avoids formal military alliances with Strictly avoids wars and military
great powers but may engage in alliances
conflicts
Legal Status No legal framework, more of a political Defined under international law
movement

Involvement in Actively advocates for economic Primarily avoids involvement in global

Global Affairs justice, disarmament, and conflicts
decolonization
 2. PANCHSHEEL AGREEMENT (1954) – PRINCIPLES OF PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE

• After India’s independence (1947) and the Chinese Communist Revolution (1949), both countries sought to
define their relationship.
• China annexed Tibet in 1950, leading to tensions with India, which had historical ties with Tibet.

The Five Principles of Panchsheel :

• The agreement was based on five fundamental principles of peaceful coexistence, which later influenced global
diplomacy.
1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
2. Mutual non-aggression.
3. Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
4. Equality and mutual benefit.
5. Peaceful coexistence.
• These principles became the foundation of India-China relations and were later incorporated into India’s Non-
Aligned Movement (NAM) foreign policy.
Impact of the Panchsheel Agreement

• Improved India-China Relations (1954-1959) – The agreement marked a period of diplomatic goodwill, with
the slogan “Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai” (India-China are brothers).
• Inspired Global Diplomacy – The principles of Panchsheel influenced Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
countries and were later adopted by the United Nations.
• Showcased India’s Peaceful Approach – India positioned itself as a leader of peaceful coexistence in
international politics.

Collapse of Panchsheel & the 1962 Sino-Indian War

• Despite the idealistic start, China soon violated Panchsheel’s principles:
• 1959 – Tibet Uprising – China suppressed the Tibetan rebellion, leading to the Dalai Lama’s exile in India, which
angered Beijing.
• 1962 – Border Disputes Escalate – China accused India of interference and launched an invasion in Aksai Chin
and Arunachal Pradesh, resulting in the 1962 Sino-Indian War.
• Breakdown of Trust – The war shattered the Panchsheel framework, and India realized that diplomatic
agreements alone could not ensure security.
 GLOBAL CONTEXT
• Cold War Period : The world divided into 2 blocs: USA-led Western bloc (capitalist) & USSR-led Eastern bloc
(communist).
KEY EVENTS :

1. The Truman Doctrine (Foreign Policy) and Containment Policy (1947-1949)

• In 1947, US President Harry Truman announced the Truman Doctrine, committing the USA to containing the spread of
communism.
• This led to economic and military aid to countries resisting communist influences, particularly Greece and Turkey.
• The Marshall Plan (1948) was introduced to rebuild war-torn Western Europe and prevent communist uprisings.
• In response, the USSR tightened its control over Eastern Europe, establishing communist regimes in Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania.

2 . BERLIN BLOCKADE (1948)

Background
• After World War II, Germany was divided into four zones controlled by the USA, UK, USSR, and France.
• Berlin, though located inside Soviet-controlled East Germany, was also divided into four sectors.
• The Western Allies (USA, UK, and France) wanted to rebuild Germany, while the Soviets wanted to keep it weak.
• In June 1948 the Soviet Union, whose territory fully surrounded the capital, cut off all ground traffic into and out of
West Berlin in an attempt to force the Allies to abandon the city. The blockade of Berlin had begun.
The Berlin Airlift (June 1948 – May 1949)
• Instead of withdrawing, the USA and UK launched a massive airlift to supply West Berlin.
• Over 277,000 flights delivered 2.3 million tons of food, coal, and medicine.
• At its peak, planes landed every 30 seconds at Berlin’s Tempelhof Airport.
• The operation was a huge success, and the blockade failed.

End of the Blockade & Consequences

• On May 12, 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade.
• Germany became permanently divided:
• West Germany (FRG) – democratic, supported by the USA & Western Europe.
• East Germany (GDR) – communist, under Soviet influence.
• The crisis led to the formation of NATO (1949) to counter Soviet threats.
• It intensified the Cold War, making East-West divisions stronger.

3. Formation of NATO & The Soviet Bloc (1949-1950)

• In 1949, the USA, Canada, and Western European nations formed NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) as a
military alliance against Soviet aggression.
• The USSR responded by solidifying the Eastern Bloc, creating a communist alliance – Warsaw (1955) .
4. The Chinese Communist Revolution (1949)
• In October 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong, defeated the nationalist
Kuomintang (KMT) in a civil war.
• The People’s Republic of China (PRC) was established, aligning itself with the USSR.
• This was a major setback for the USA, as China became the largest communist nation.

5. The Korean War (1950-1953)

• In 1950, North Korea (supported by the USSR and China) invaded South Korea (backed by the USA and UN
forces).
• The war saw direct US-Chinese military engagement.
• After three years of fighting, an armistice was signed in 1953, maintaining Korea’s division at the 38th parallel.

6. The Arms Race and Nuclear Tensions (1949-1957)

• In 1949, the USSR tested its first atomic bomb, ending the US monopoly on nuclear weapons.
• By the early 1950s, both superpowers developed hydrogen bombs, escalating fears of total nuclear war.
• The Eisenhower administration (1953-1961) introduced the New Look Policy, emphasizing nuclear deterrence
and massive retaliation.
BERLIN
BLOCKADE