LOGICS

Prepared by: Group 7

 Table of
contents

01. Logic Statement 02. Truth Tables, Equivalent

and Quantifiers Statements, and Tautologies
 Rhea Arpilleda  Myka Joy Rocolcol
 Maxene Sophia Arreza  Leonirose Tilan

03. Conditional, 04. Symbolic

Biconditional and Related Arguments
Statements
 Philip Telin  Athena Sheen R.
Regino
 Learning
Objectives

After completing this chapter, the learner will be able to:

•Illustrate and symbolize propositions.

•Distinguish between simple and compound propositions.
•Determine the truth values of propositions.
•Construct switching network.
•Illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions.
•Illustrate different types of tautologies and fallacies.
•Determine the validity of categorical syllogisms.
•Establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical propositions,
syllogisms, and fallacies.
•Determine the validity of an argument.
Logic is the technique by which we add conviction to truth.
-Jean de la Bruyere (1645-1696)
Lesson 1:
Logic Statements
and Quantifiers
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
•The term "logic" is often used, but not always in its technical sense.
•Logic is technically defined as “the science or study of how to evaluate arguments and
reasoning”
•Logic helps us to differentiate correct reasoning from poor reasoning. It is important in the
sense that it helps us to reason correctly.
•Others defined logic as discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning Logical reasoning is
used on mathematics to prove theorems, in computer science-to verily correctness of programs
and to prove theorems. In this chapter it will be limited to the discussion of mathematical logic.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic) is a branch of
mathematics with close connections to computer science. It
includes both the mathematical study of logic and the
applications of formal logic to other areas of mathematics.
Mathematical logic includes the study of the deductive formal
proofs systems and expressive formal system, Mathematical logic
has four divisions: Set Theory, Model Theory, Recursion Theory
and Proof Theory.

The existence of mathematical logic has contributed to, and has

been aggravated by, the study of foundations of mathematics.
The study started in the late 19th century with the development
of axiomatic frameworks for analysis, geometry and arithmetic.
In our time the work in the foundations of mathematics often Aristotle (382-322 BC)
centered on establishing which parts of mathematics can be is generally regarded as
formalized, rather than trying to find theories in which all of the Father of Logic.
mathematics can be developed.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence which is either true or false, but not
both. The truth value of the propositions is the truth and falsity of the proposition. Let us
examine the examples below.

Example 1: Which of the following are propositions?

a. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
b. What day is it?
c. Help me, please.
d. He is handsome.

Answer.
a."Manila is the capital of the Philippines" is true, therefore it is a proposition.
b."What day is it?" It is a question; it cannot be considered either true or false and thus, it is not
a proposition.
e. "Help me, please." It cannot be categorized as true or false and therefore, it is not a
proposition.
d. "He is handsome." The sentence is neither true nor false because "he" is not specified and
thus, it is not a proposition.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
There are also propositions (or statements) which are considered ambiguous such as
a. Mathematics is fun.
b. Calculus is more interesting than Trigonometry.
c. It was hot in Manila.
d. Street vendors are poor.

A propositional variable is a variable which is used to represent a proposition. A formal

propositional variable written using propositional logic notation, p. q and r are used to represent
propositions. Logical connectives are used to combine simple propositions which are preferred
as compound propositions. A compound proposition is a proposition composed of two or more
simple propositions connected by logical connectives "and," "or," "if then," "not,""if and only if,"
and "exclusive-or. "A proposition which is not compound is said to be simple (also called
atomic).
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
A. Operations on
Propositions
There are three main logical connectives such as conjunction, disjunction, and negation. The
following are briefly discussed in this section.
Note that T refers to true proposition and F refers to false proposition.

1. Conjunction. The conjunction of the proposition p and q is the compound proposition "p and q."
Symbolically, p^q, where A is the symbol for “and”. If p is true and q is true, then p^q is true;
otherwise p^q is false. Meaning, the conjunction of two propositions is true only if each
proposition is true.
Example 2: Determine the truth value of each of the following p q p^q
conjunctions.
a. 2+6=9 and man is a mammal. T T T
b. Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria Macapagal T F F
F T F
Arroyo is the first female
F F F
Philippine President.
c. Abraham Lincoln is a former US President and the Philippine
Senate is composed of 24 senators.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
A. Operations on
Propositions
2. Disjunction. The disjunction of the proposition p, q is the
compound proposition "p or q." Symbolically, p v q, where v is
the symbol for “or”. If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are
true, then p v q is true; otherwise p v q is false. Meaning, the p q p^q
disjunction of two propositions is false only if each proposition T T T
is false. T F F
F T F
Example 3: Determine the truth value of each of the following F F F
disjunctions.
a. 2+6=9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion.
b. Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators or Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine President.
c. Abraham Lincoln is a former US President or man is a
mammal.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
A. Operations on
Propositions
3. Negation. The negation of the proposition p is denoted by ~p, p ~p
where ~ is the symbol for "not." If p is true, ~p is false. Meaning, the
truth value of the negation of a proposition is always the reverse of the T F
truth value of the original proposition. F T

Example 4: The following are propositions for p, find the

corresponding-p.
a. 3+5=8.
b. Sofia is a girl. p q p→q
c. Achaiah is not here.
T T T
T F F
4. Conditional. The conditional (or implication) of the proposition p
F T T
and q is the compound proposition "if p then q." Symbolically, p→q,
F F T
where → is the symbol for "if then." p is called hypothesis (or
antecedent or premise) and q is called conclusion (or consequent or
consequence). The conditional proposition p → q is false only when p is
true and q is false; otherwise p → q is true. Meaning p → q states that a
true proposition cannot imply a false proposition.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
A. Operations on
Propositions
Example 6: Obtain the truth value of each of the following conditional
a. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.
b. 2+5=7 is a sufficient condition for 5+6-1.
c. 14-8=4 is a necessary condition that 6+3-2.

5. Biconditional. The biconditional of the proposition p and q is the

p q p↔q
compound proposition "p if and only if q." Symbolically, p e q, where e
is the symbol for “if and only if”. If p and q are true or both false, then T T T
p↔q is true; if p and q T F F
have opposite truth values, then p↔q is false. F T F
F F T
Example 7: Determine the truth values of each of the following
biconditional propositions.
a. 2+8=10 if and only if 6-3=3.
b. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent to fish live in the
moon.
c. 8-2=5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4+2=7.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
A. Operations on
Propositions
6. Exclusive-or. The exclusive-or of the proposition p and q is the p q p⊕q
compound proposition "p exclusive-or q." Symbolically, p ⊕ q, where ⊕
is the symbol for "exclusive-or." If p and q are true or both false, then p T T F
⊕ q is false; if p and q have opposite truth values, then p ⊕ q is true. T F T
F T T
It can be noted that the truth values of p ⊕ q is the negation of the F F F
truth values of p↔q .

• Given the proposition "Sofia will take her lunch in Batangas or she will have it in Singapore,"
it can be noted from the statement that "Sofia cannot have her lunch in Batangas and at the
same time do it in Singapore," thus it is considered false.

• If Sofia will have her lunch in Batangas or in Singapore, meaning she can only have it in one
location given a single schedule (the truth value is true). Lastly, if she ought to decide to
have her lunch elsewhere (neither in Batangas nor in Singapore), therefore the truth value is
false.
Table 9.1 shows the common words or terms used in the six main logical
connectives.
Logical Connectives Logical Expressions Word

Conjunction p^q p and q, p but q, p also q, p in addition q,

and p moreover q
Disjunction pvq p or q
Negation ~p or ¬p or p’ not p, if it false that p…, and it is not the
case that p…,
Conditional p→q If p, then q., p implies q., p only if q., p
therefore q., p is stronger than q, p is
sufficient condition for q, q if p, q follows p,
q whenever p, q is weaker than p, q is a
necessary condition for p.
Biconditional p↔q p if and only if q (p iff q), p is equivalent to
q, and p is necessary and sufficient for q
Exclusive-or p⊕q p exclusive-or q
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
B. Switching Network
A switching network is a collection
of wires and switches connecting
two terminals X and Y. A switch may
be either open, O or closed, C. An
open switch will not permit the
current to flow while a closed switch
will permit current to flow.

Figure 9.1 illustrates the diagram

for single wire, open switch, and
closed switch.

Figure 9.2 shows the series and

parallel switching network.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
B. Switching Network

Two switches are complementary

if one switch is open and the other
is closed, and vice versa. In
addition, two switches are said to be
equivalent if they have the same
electrical properties concerning the
flow and non-flow of current.

Example 8: Construct the switching network equivalent in each of the following compound
statements.
a. [(p^r) v (q^r)] v ~p
b. [ p v (~p v q) v (p v ~q) ] ~q
c. (p v ~q ) ^ (~p v q) ^ (p v ~q)
 B. Switching Network

The several patterns are illustrated in the following diagrams

Note that although the figure above shows a

particular pattern of open and closed
switches, a number of different patterns that
will allow the current to flow from X to Y are
possible.
 Logical Statement and Quantifiers
C. Quantifier

A predicate (or open statements) is a statement whose truth depends on the value of
one or more variables. Predicates become propositions once every variable is bound by
assigning a universe of discourse. Most of the propositions are defined in terms of
predicates.

For example, ”x is an even number” is a predicate whose truth depends on the value of
x. The predicate is true for x=2 since 2 is an even number, but false for x =3 since 3 is
an odd number.

The same with other statements, predicates are often represented by a letter.
Moreover, a predicate can also be denoted by a function-like notation. We can denote
the given predicate as:P(x)="x is an even number." Now P(2) is true, and P(3) is false. If
P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or false, depending on the value of x.
 C. Quantifier

A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it becomes a statement only when

variable x is given a particular value. Propositional functions are denoted as P(x), Q(x),
R(x), and so on. The independent variable of propositional function must have a
universe of discourse, which is a set from which the variable can take values.

Consider the sentence "If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of 2." The given
sentence has the logical form P(x)→ Q(x) and its truth value can be determine for a
specific value of x. However, statements such as
• There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number or
• For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x +1 is an odd number.

cannot be represented using logical connectives because of the presence of the

phrases "there exists" and "for all." These terms are known as existential and universal
quantifiers. The universe of discourse for the variable x is the set of positive real
numbers for the proposition "There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is
even number."

.
 C. Quantifier

Before we discuss quantifiers we will first define some important terms.

 Binding variable is used on the variable x, we can say that the occurrence of this
variable is bound.
 On contrary, a variable is said to be free, if an occurrence of a variable is not bound.

To convert a propositional function into a proposition, all variables in a proposition must

be bound or a particular value must be designated to them. This is done by applying
combination of quantifiers (universal, existential) and value assignments. The scope of
a quantifier is the part of an assertion in which variables are bound by the quantifier.
Therefore, a variable is free if it is outside the scope of all quantifiers.

The statement "there exists an x such that P(x)," is symbolized by ∃x P(x). The symbol
∃ is called the existential quantifier. The statement " ∃ x P(x)" is true if there is at
least one value of x for which P(a) is true. The statement "for all x, P(x)," is symbolized
by ∀x P(x). The symbol ∀ is called the universal quantifier. The statement " ∀ x P(x)"
is true if only if P(x) is true for every value of x.
 C. Quantifier

Table 9.3 shows common words associated with existential and universal quantifiers.

Quantifier Symbol Translation

Existential Quantifier ∃ There exist, there is
some, for some, for
which, for at least once,
such that, and
satisfying.
Universal Quantifier ∀ For all, for each, for
every, for any, and
given any.

If the universe of disoourse for P is P { p1, p2, …,pn}, then ∀x P(x) ↔ P(p1) ^ P(p2) ^…
^P(pn) and ∃x P(x) ↔ P(p1) v P(p2) v…v P(pn). From this, we can easily determine the
truth values of the quantifiers.

.
 C. Quantifier

Table 9.4: Truth Values of Quantifiers with One

Variable Statement Is True when Is False when
∃x P(x) P(x) is true for every x There is at least one x
for which P(x) is false.
∀x P(x) There is at least one x P(x) is false for every x.
for which P(x) is true.

Table 9.5:Quantified Statements and their Negations

Statement Negation
All A are B. Some A are not B.
No A are B. Some A are B.
Some A are not B. All A are B.
Some A are B. No A are B.
Lesson 2:
Truth Tables, Equivalent
Statements, and
Tautologies
A. Truth Tables

This section shows the construction of

compound propositions through truth
tables which referred as standard truth
table form. Let us examine the examples
below.

Example 1:
a. ~p v ~q
b. p → (p ↔ ~q)
c.(~p ^ q) v (p ^~q)
d. (p → q) v (q ^ ~r)
B. Equivalent
Statements
This section covers the definition of logically
equivalent propositions and the laws of logical
equivalent which were supported with some
examples.

Logically Equivalent. Two propositions are

said to be logically equivalent (or
equivalent) if they have the same truth value
for every row of the truth table, that is if x ↔ y
is a tautology. Symbolically, x ≡ y.

Example:
a. p ^ (q v r) and (p ^ q) v (p ^ r)
b. p → q and ~q → ~p
c. p ↔ q and (p → q) ^ (q → p)
 C. Tautologies
There are three important classes of compound
statements namely tautology, contradiction, and
contingency which are briefly discussed below.
• Tautology is a compound statement that is true
for all possible combinations of the truth values of
the propositional variables also called logically
true.
• Contradiction is a compound statement that is
false for all possible combinations of the truth
values of its propositional variables also called
logically false or absurdity.
• Contingency is a compound statement that can
either be true or false, depending on the truth
values of the propositional variables are neither a
tautology nor a contradiction.
Lesson 3:
Conditional,
Biconditional and
Related Statements
There are different ways to express the conditional proposition p → q. The conditional proposition p→
q can be expressed in three variations using the logical connectives ~ and→.
Name Statement
Conditional p→ q
Converse of p → q. q→ p
Inverse of p → q. ~p → ~q
Contrapositive of p → q. ~q → ~p

The truth table below show the comparison on the variations of conditional propositions.
p q p→q q→ p ~p ~q ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
Observe that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p, while q → p is equivalent to ~p → ~q. On the other
hand, p → q is not equivalent to q → p and ~p → ~q.

Example: Given the conditional proposition “If Achaiah goes to school, then Sofia will go home”,
determine the converse, inverse, and the contrapositive of the proposition.

Solution:
 Converse: If Sofia will go home, then Achaiah goes to school.
 Inverse: If Achaiah does not go to school, then Sofia will not go home.
 Contrapositive: If Sofia will not go home, then Achaiah does not go to school.
Lesson 4:
Symbolic
Argument
 Symbolic Arguments
A. Arguments

A proof is an argument from hypotheses (assumptions) to a conclusion. Each step of the

argument follows the laws of logic and rule of inference. In mathematics, a statement is
considered valid if it is accompanied by a proof. Proof is one of the important things that make
mathematics different from other discipline. It is not easy to establish proofs; there is no single
guideline for proofs and it is not just following rules, memorizing formulas, or even looking at
some examples in text.

Most of the rules of inference are from tautologies. Since a tautology is a statement which is
"always true," it is used in drawing conclusions. Logic proofs usually begin with premises -
statements that are allowed to be assumed, while conclusion is the statement that needs to be
proven. The idea is to make use of the premises using rules of inference until we arrive at the
conclusion. The arguments can be written in symbolic form which will be discussed in the
following examples.
 Symbolic Arguments
A. Arguments
Let us examine one rule of inference to prove the validity of arguments. One of the rules
of inference is the rule of detachment. Rule of Detachment (or Modus Ponens) means
the method of affirming. The truth table below shows that [p ^ (p→ q)]→ q is a tautology.
Symbolic Arguments
B. Fallacies

Logical Fallacies refers to faulty reasoning in logic of an argument. It is advantageous to know

logical fallacies in order to avoid them in an argument. There are different types of fallacies that
we might use to present our position. The following are the list of common types of fallacies with
their corresponding examples.

1. Appeal to Authority (or Argumentum Ad Verecundiam). It is an argument that occurs

when we accept or reject a claim merely because of the sources or authorities who made their
positions on a certain argument.
Example 1: The government should impose death penalty. Many respected people, such as the
former Secretary of Justice, have publicly stated her opposition to it.
Example 2: Floyd Mayweather signs autographs with Parker pen, so evidently Parker pen is the
most reliable pen on the market.

2. Appeal to Force (or Argumentum Ad Baculum). It is an argument which attempts to

establish a conclusion by threat or intimidation.
Example 1: You will support my idea and tell the others that I am right; because if you don't I
will do everything for you to lose your job.
Example 2: If you don't believe in God, you won't go to heaven.
B. Fallacies

3. Appeal to Ignorance (or Argumentum Ex Silentio). It is an argument supporting a claim

merely because there is no proof that it's wrong.
Example 1: Since time people have been trying to prove that God exists. But no one has yet
been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not exist.
Example 2: If you.can't say that there aren't Martians living in Mars, so it's safe for me to
accept there are.

4. Appeal to Pity (or Argumentum Ad Misericordiam). It is an argument that involves an

irrelevant or highly -exaggerated appeal to pity to get people to accept a conclusion by making
them feel sorry for someone.
Example 1: Mark has worked hard on his research project; and he will be depressed if he fails.
For these reasons, you must give him a passing grade.
Example 2: The city engineer is a vital part of this city. If he is sent to prison, the city and his
family will suffer. Therefore, you must find in your heart to forgive him.

5. Appeal to the People (or Argumentum Ad Populum). It is an argument that the opinion of
the majority is always valid.
Example 1: Most Filipino like soda. Therefore, soda is good.
Example 2: Everyone I know is voting for Juan dela Cruz, so he's probably the best choice for
B. Fallacies

6. Argumentum Ad Hominem (Latin for "to the man"). It is an attack on the character of a
person of his opinions or arguments. It is a tactic used by an adversary when they do not have a
logical counter-argument.
Example 1: Don't listen to Peter' s assertions on instruction, he's a simpleton.
Example 2: You can't believe that Presidential candidate is going to lower taxes. He's a liar.

7. Circular Argument (or Petitio Principii). If a premise of an argument presupposes the truth
of its conclusions; meaning, the argument takes for granted what it's supposed to prove.
Example 1: Senator Chiz Escudero is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.
Example 2: God exists because the Holy Bible says so. The. Holy Bible is true. Therefore, God
exists.

8. Equivocation. It is an argument used in two or more different senses/meanings within a single

argument.
Example 1: Giving financial support to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have the right
to our finances.
Therefore, some real numbers are less
Example 2: Some real numbers less than any number than itself.
B. Fallacies

9. Fallacy of Division. A reasoning which assumes that the characteristic of a group is also the
characteristic of each individual in the group.
Example 1: University of the Philippines is the best university in the country. Therefore, every
student from UP is better than any other university in the country.
Example 2: Your family is crazy. That means that you are crazy, too.

10. False Dilemma. It is an argument which implies one or two outcomes is inevitable and both
have negative consequences, but actually there could be more choices possible.
Example 1: If you don't vote for this candidate you must be antichrist.
Example 2: You either broke the glass door, or you did not. Which is it?

11. Hasty Generalization. It is an argument that a general conclusion on a certain condition is

always true based on insufficient or biased evidence.
Example 1: A MacBook broke after a month, so there must be something wrong in the
manufacture of MacBook.
Example 2: My cousin said that mathematics subjects were hard, and the one I'm enrolled in is
hard, too. All mathematics classes must be hard.
12. Red Herring. It is an argument which introduces a topic related to the subject at hand. It is
diversionary tactic to avoid key issues, often way of avoiding opposing argument rather than
addressing them.
Example 1: Some politicians may be corrupt, but there are corrupt police, corrupt lawyers, and even
corrupt leaders of the church. There are also many honest police officers. Therefore, let's put corrupt
politicians in perspective.
Example 2: I know I forget to clean the toilet yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.

13. Slippery Slope (or snowball/domino theory). It is an argument which claims a sort of chain
reaction, usually ending in some extreme and after ludicrous will happen, but there's really not enough
evidence for such assumption.
Example 1: If high school students are given 15 minutes rather than 5 minutes break between
classes, they'll just start skipping classes.
Example 2: If I fail Algebra, I won't be able to graduate. If I don't graduate, I probably won't be able
to get a good job, and may very well end up like a beggar.

14. Strawman Fallacy. It is an argument that misrepresents position of the opponent in an extreme or
exaggerated form or attacking the weaker and irrelevant portion of an argument in order to make it
appear weaker than it actually is. The objective is to refute the misrepresentation of the position, and
conclude that the real position has been refuted.
Example 1: Congressman who does not support the proposed national minimum wage increase
hates the poor.
Activity: Write your answer in a one whole sheet of paper.
Write the letter of the correct answer.

Construct the truth table for the following:

THANK YOU AND
GOODLUCK!