Grade 12 - Electronics

Switching Circuits
-A switching circuit is the study of the properties of networks of idealized switches.

-By means of switching circuit we refer to the component or device that can switch an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

- Their output state is only a function of the present state of their input.

-They are applicable to the design of telephone systems and computers.

Principle of operation of Switching Circuits using operational
amplifiers and timers.

1. Multi-vibrators
- Multivibrators are classes of electronic switching circuit.
- The name ‘multi vibrator’ indicates the many upper frequencies or
multi vibrations which exist in the output wave form.
- In digital electronics we frequently need circuits that produce accurate
time delays or clock pulses
- it develops a non-sinusoidal formed wave with the aid of resistors and
capacitors..
- they use positive feedback.
- They consist of THREE separate types.
-
1. Bi-stable multivibrator
- it has TWO absolutely stable states, ‘ High’ and low state.
- it is also called flip-flop, trigger circuit or binary.
- the logic state of SET input which will make the bi-satble circuit to be HIGH/ON.
1 or HIGH
- the logic state of RESET input which will make the bi-satble circuit to be LOW/OFF.
0 or LOW
- the application of a bi-stable circuit:
Used in memory store a bit circuits.
Circuit diagram and operation of bi-stable multi-vibrator.
The 555 Bi-stable mult-vibrator
circuit visit page 230
operation
- R1 and R2 are pull-up resistors that hold both the trigger Pin 2 and reset Pin 4.
- use two input switches ‘set and reset’
- Without these resistors the TWO inputs would be wavering between +v and 0v (called floating).
- Pull up resistors hold both trigger pin 2 and reset pin 4 to high.
- both pins are connected to push-to-make switches which if u press will pull that pin down to 0V.
-
If the 555 Its pulled down to 0V automatically the 555 will go HIGH.
- When it is pulled high it set the output low
- pin 4 is pulled down to 0V the 555 is inhibited.
- press set switch 1 will pull pin 2 ‘low’
- cause the IC output to flip and rise ‘high’
The 741 Op-Amp
circuit visit page 229
operation
- it operates as a comparator.
- when a trigger input is received the output will change from positive saturation to negative saturation.
- It will remain in this state for a pre-determined time.
- T1 is the time taken for the output to return back to its original state.
Calculate the points at which the circuit will trigger
formular p229.

- Input and output of 741 Op-Amp

- input and output of 555
2.Mono-stable
- It have only ONE stable state and produce a single output pulse when it is triggered externally.
-A monostable circuit is used to as a delay and timing circuits
-
Mono-stable circuit diagram using 555 timer
IC and 741 Op-Amp.
555 Timer IC circuit diagram
 Pin 1 – Ground
This pin is connected to the more negative
supply line or negative battery terminal; the circuit is
normally operated off a single supply.

Pin 2 – Trigger
A voltage lower than 1/3 Vcc causes the output
(Pin 3) and discharge (Pin 7) to go high.

Pin 3 – Output
Totem pole output can sink or source 200 mA
(constant),
CMOS = 100/20mA
Low output = GND + 0.2V, CMOS = 0V
High output = Vcc – 1.2V depending on load. CMOS
= Vdd

Pin 4 – Reset pin

Voltage lower than 0.2V (0.2V min, 0.45V max)
causes both output Pins (3 and 7) to go low in the
shortest possible time. If not needed, tie Pin 4 to +V
THE 555 timer generates a positive output pulse when triggered by a negative input signal. Triggering takes place when the input drops below 1/3 Vcc. The output pulse width
(time) is given by:

- 555 IC Monostable multivibrator output waveform. Visit page 234

555 IC MONOSTABLE OPERATION
- Pulling pin 2 down to zero triggers the 555.
- Pin 2 is connected to pull up resistor and push to make switch coupled to ground (0v).
- as the switch is activated it pulls pin 2 to 0v, triggering the 555.
-the circuit will re-sets immediately.
- Setting both output pin 3 and discharge pin 7 high allowing the timing capacitor C1 to start charging through timing resistor 1.
741 Op-Amp monostable circuit
operation
- circuit page 232
- this is a monostable multivibrator circuit that employs a single op amp.
- the main component is 741 op- amp
- it is a timing circuit that changes state once triggered. But returns to its original state after a certain time delay.
- this charges up C2 which keeps the non-inverting input temporarily higher than the inverting.
- C2 will discharge to ground and op amp output swings back to low.
- the duration of the pulse is defined by R2 and C2.
Op Amp input and output
waveforms.
Page 232.
3.A stable multivabrator
- An automatic switching circuit that has NO stable states.
- it generating a continuous train of square-wave pulses..
- in which the circuit is not stable in either state, it continually switches from one state to the other.
- it function as a relaxation oscillator.
Circuit Diagram and Operation
555 timer stable
Initially, when the power is turned on, the capacitor(C1), is uncharged an thus the trigger voltage (pin 2) is at 0V. this causes the output of comparator B to be HIGH and the output of comparator A to be LOW, forcing the output of the latch, and thus the base of Q1, LOW an keeping the transistor off. Now, C1 begins charging through R1 and R2. When the capacitor voltage reaches 1/3 V cc, comparator B switches to its LOW output state, an when the capacitor voltage reaches 2/3 V cc, comparator A switches to its HIGH
output state. This resets the latch, causing the base of Q1 to go HIGH and turning on the transistor. This creates a discharge path through R2 and the transistor as indicated. The capacitor now begins to discharge, causing comparator A to go LOW. At this point where the capacitor discharges down to 1/3 V cc, comparator B switches HIGH; this sets the latch, making the base of Q1 LOW and turning off the transistor. Another charging cycle begins, and the entire process repeats .
A Stable 555 calculations
charge time (T1) = 0,639 ( R1 + R1) × C
Discharge time ( T2) = 0,639 (R1) × C
Time for one cycle (T) = t1 + t2
frequency of oscillation (f) = 1/T

555 astable multi-vibrator output waveform

check page 237
741 Op-Amp Astable multivibrator
-circuirt P 235
OPERATION
- Use positive feedback
- The output voltage from pin 6 using resistors R1 and R2.
- Capacitor connected to the inverting of op-amp
- this capacitor charges through the pot RV1
- If the capacitor is uncharged condition we can expect 0V at the inverting pin.
- then inverting pin is getting a voltage which is the output voltage divided by two resistors..
- capacitor starts charging to the high voltage.
When the output becomes negative
the capacitor suddenly discharges
to zero.
Op- Amp Astable multivibrator –output waveform
p235.
Schmidt Trigger
What is a Schmitt trigger?
is a comparator with built-in hysteresis.

Hysteresis means that there is higher reference level when the input voltage goes from a lower to higher value than when it goes from a higher to a lower value.
What is the function of a Schmitt trigger circuit?
Is to ensure fast clean switching by means of hysteresis that is built inside the circuit.
OR in simple English
It is used to clean up a signal which has been distorted or which has had some noise added during its transmission through the air.
Applications
- used in the first stages of radio receivers.
- varying input waveform: by changing the sine wave into a square or rectangular wave.
-Operation of 741 schmitt trigger circuit

The Schmitt trigger is suitable to be used as a temperature sensitive switch because it is able to trigger at TWO different voltages enabling it to switch a
heating system ON and OFF at TWO different levels.
With reference to the Schmitt trigger, below it is hysteresis
characteristic curve and 741 Op-Amp connected as an inverting
Schmitt trigger
741 Op-Amp connected as an
inverting Schmitt trigger
Comparator and summing Amplifier
what is a comparator?
A Comparator is a specialized op-amp circuit that compares two input voltages and lets you know which of the TWO is greater.
a circuit diagram for a voltage
comparator.
Operation for the voltage
comparator
P296
COMPARATOR AS A DARK SENSOR

+V

100 kΩ

10 kΩ

741 Q

100 kΩ

L DR
4 ,7 k Ω Alarm
COMPARATOR AS A DARK SENSOR
• The Dark sensor using an LDR in series with a 100 kΩ
resistor to form a voltage divider, which feeds the op-
amp’s non-inverting input.
• The inverting input is fed by a 100 kΩ variable resistor.
• If the light level falls the LDR resistance rises.
• The voltage at the non-inverting input will then also rise.
• Once it goes above the level set by the 100 kΩ resistor,
the opamp’s output immediately goes “HI”, activating the
transistor, which in turn energises the alarm.
 Summing Amplifier
- is another type of OP Circuit that is used to combine the voltages present on two or more inputs into a single output voltage.
- The gain of the amplifier is determined by the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistance of each branch.

the feedback is provided by Rf Ngative feedback

Because the inputs are fed into the inverting

input, which will cause the output to be 1800
out of phase
Differentiator and integrator

OP Amp integrator
An Integrator is a circuit that produces an output which is a ramp when a square wave input is applied to it.
Circuit diagram of OP-Amp
intergrator
operation
example
p 303
Passive RC integrator circuit
operation P291
OP Amp Differentiator
An Differentiator is a circuit that produces an output which is a square when a ramp/iangular rawave input is applied to it.
-Operation of OP Amp differentiator
- Passive RC Differentiator p 292