Wireless Networks

Module 2: WPAN
Dr. Ranjan bala jain
Professor
Department of EXTC
VESIT
● W hen you

● E nter this class

● L earning is Fun And

● C ooperation is Expected

● O ur Positive Attitude and

● M utual respect are part of

● E verything We do and Say....

©RBJ VESIT
Module 2
● WPAN: Bluetooth (802.15.1): Radio Specifications, Protocol
Stack, Link Types, Security, Topologies, Applications.
● ZigBee (802.15.4): Radio Specifications, Components,
Topologies, Protocol Stack, Applications.
● RFID: Radio Specifications, Architecture, Types and
applications.
● Near Field Communication & UWB (802.15.3 a): Introduction
and working.
● LoWPAN: Features, Architecture, protocol stack and
applications ©RBJ VESIT
Zigbee (IEEE802.15.4)

● Radio Specifications
● Components
● Topologies
● Protocol Stack
● Applications

©RBJ VESIT
Zigbee (IEEE802.15.4)

● The low rate (LR) wireless personal access network (WPAN) (IEEE
802.15.4/LRWPAN) is intended to serve a set of industrial, residential,
and medical applications with very low power consumption, low cost
requirement, and relaxed needs for data rate and QoS .
● The low data rate enables the LR-WPAN to consume little power.
● ZigBee technology is a low data rate, low power consumption, low
cost, wireless networking protocol targeted toward automation and
remote control applications.
● The IEEE 802.15.4 committee and ZigBee Alliance worked together
and developed the technology commercially known as ZigBee.
©RBJ VESIT
Zigbee (IEEE802.15.4)
● It is expected to provide low-cost and low-power connectivity for
devices that need battery life as long as several months to
several years but does not require data transfer rates as high as
those enabled by Bluetooth.
● ZigBee-compliant wireless devices are expected to transmit 10–
75 minutes, depending on the RF environment and power output
consumption required for a given application, and
● The IEEE 802.15.4 committee focused on the specifications
of the lower two layers of the protocol (the physical and data
link layers).
©RBJ VESIT
Zigbee (IEEE802.15.4)
● Operate in the unlicensed RF worldwide (2.4 GHz global, 915 MHz
America, or 868 MHz Europe) bands.
● The data rate is 250 kbps at 2.4 GHz, 40 kbps at 915 MHz, and 20
kbps at 868 MHz.
● ZigBee often uses a basic master-slave configuration suited to static
star networks of many infrequently used devices that talk via small
data packets. It allows up to 254 nodes.
● ZigBee can be implemented in mesh (peer-to-peer )networks larger
than is possible with Bluetooth. Other network topology such as and
cluster tree is also used.

©RBJ VESIT
● When ZigBee node is powered down, it can wake up and get a packet
in around 15 msec.
● ZigBee Alliance aims to provide the upper layers of the protocol stack
(from the network to the application layer) for interoperable data
interworking, security services, and a range of wireless home and
building control solutions.
● ZigBee Alliance provides interoperability compliance testing, marketing
of the standard, and advanced product engineering for the evolution of
the standard. This will assure consumers to buy products from different
manufacturers with confidence that those products will work together.

©RBJ VESIT
ZigBee Components
● The most basic is the device.
● A device can be a Full-function device (FFD) or Reduced-Function Device
(RFD).
● A network includes at least one FFD, operating as the personal area
network (PAN) coordinator.
● The FFD can operate in three modes: a PAN coordinator, a coordinator, or
a device.
● An RFD is intended for applications that are extremely simple and do not
need to send large amounts of data.
● An FFD can talk to reduced-function or full-function devices, while an RFD
can only talk to an FFD.
©RBJ VESIT
ZigBee Network Topology

©RBJ VESIT
Star Topology
● Communication is established
between devices and a single central
controller, called the PAN coordinator.
● The PAN coordinator may be powered
by mains while the devices will most
likely be battery powered.
● Applications that benefit from this
topology are home automation,
personal computer (PC) peripherals,
toys, and games.

©RBJ VESIT
Star Topology
● After an FFD is activated for the first time, it may establish its own
network and become the PAN coordinator.
● Each star network chooses a PAN identifier, which is not currently
used by any other network within the radio sphere of influence.
● This allows each star network to operate independently.

©RBJ VESIT
Peer to Peer Topology
● In the peer-to-peer topology, there is also
one PAN coordinator.
● In contrast to star topology, any device can
communicate with any other device as long
as they are in range of one another.
● A peer-to-peer network can be ad hoc, self-
organizing, and self-healing.
● Applications: industrial control and
monitoring, WSN & asset and inventory
tracking would benefit from such a topology.
● It also allows multiple hops to route
messages from any device to any other
device in the network. It can provide
reliability by multipath routing.
©RBJ VESIT
Cluster Tree Topology
● It is a special case of a peer-to-peer network in which
● most devices are full-function devices and an RFD may connect to a
cluster-tree network as a leaf node at the end of a branch.
● Any of the full-function devices can act as a coordinator and provide
synchronization services to other devices and coordinators.
● However, only one of these coordinators is the PAN coordinator.
● The PAN coordinator forms the first cluster by establishing itself as
the cluster head (CLH) with a cluster identifier (CID) of zero,
choosing an unused PAN identifier, and broadcasting beacon frames
to neighboring devices.
©RBJ VESIT
Cluster Tree Topology
● A candidate device receiving a beacon frame may request to join the
network at the cluster head.
● If the PAN coordinator permits the device to join, it will add this new
device to its neighbor list. The newly joined device will add the cluster
head as its parent in its neighbor list and begin transmitting periodic
beacons such that other candidate devices may then join the network at
that device.
● Once application or network requirements are met, the PAN coordinator
may instruct a device to become the cluster head of a new cluster
adjacent to the first one.
● The advantage of the clustered structure is the increased coverage at the
cost of increased message latency.
©RBJ VESIT
Cluster Tree Topology

©RBJ VESIT
IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPAN Device Architecture

©RBJ VESIT
IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPAN Device Architecture

● The device comprises a physical layer (PHY), which contains the RF

transceiver along with its low-level control mechanism.
● A MAC sublayer provides access to the physical channel for all types
of transfer.
● The upper layers consist of
● a network layer, which provides network configuration,
manipulation, and message routing, and
● an application layer, which provides the intended function of a
device. An IEEE 802.2 logical link control (LLC) can access the MAC
through the service specific convergence sublayer (SSCS).
©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
PHY Layer
● The PHY (IEEE 802.15.4) provides two services: the PHY data service
and PHY management service interfacing to the physical layer
management entity (PLME).
● The PHY data service enables the transmission and reception of PHY
protocol data units (PPDUs) across the physical radio channel.
● The features of the PHY are:
-Activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver,
- Energy detection (ED),
- Link quality indication (LQI),
- Channel selection,
- Clear channel assessment (CCA) and
- Transmitting as well as receiving packets across the physical medium.

©RBJ VESIT
PHY layer
● The standard provides two options based on the frequency band. Both are
based on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
● The data rate is 250 kbps at 2.4 GHz, 40 kbps at 915 MHz, and 20 kbps at
868 MHz.
● The higher rate at 2.4 GHz is attributed to a higher-order modulation
scheme.
● Lower frequency provides longer range due to lower propagation losses.
Low rate can be translated into better sensitivity and larger coverage
area.
● Higher rate means higher throughput, lower latency, or lower duty cycle.

©RBJ VESIT
Frequency Bands & Rates
● There is a single channel between 868 and 868.6 MHz,
● 10 channels between 902 and 928 MHz, and 16 channels between 2.4 and 2.4835 GHz.
● Several channels in different frequency bands enable the ability to relocate within the spectrum.

©RBJ VESIT
Frequency Bands & Rates
● The standard also allows dynamic channel selection.
● MAC includes a scan function that steps through a list of
supported channels in search of a beacon, while the PHY
contains several lower-level functions, such as receiver
energy detection, link quality indication, and channel
switching.
● These functions are used by the network to establish its
initial operating channel and to change channels in response
to a prolonged outage.

©RBJ VESIT
IEEE 802.15.4 PHY packet structure

©RBJ VESIT
IEEE 802.15.4 PHY packet structure

● To maintain a common simple interface with MAC, both PHY share a

single packet structure.
● Each PPDU contains,
● A synchronization header (preamble plus start of packet delimiter),
● A PHY header to indicate the packet length, and
● The payload, or PHY service data unit (PSDU).
● The 32-bit preamble is designed for the acquisition of symbol and chip
timing, and in some cases may be used for coarse frequency
adjustment.
● Channel equalization is not required for either PHY due to the
combination of small coverage area and relatively low chip rates.
©RBJ VESIT
IEEE 802.15.4 PHY packet structure

● Within the PHY header, 7 bits are used to specify the length of the
payload (in bytes). This supports packets of length 0–127 bytes,
although, due to MAC
● layer overhead, zero-length packets will not occur in practice.
● Typical packet sizes for home applications such as monitoring and
control security, lighting, air conditioning, and other appliances are
expected to be of the order of 30–60 bytes, while more demanding
applications such as interactive games and computer peripherals,
or multihop applications with more address overhead, may require
larger packet sizes.
©RBJ VESIT
Phy Layer, packet duration & Modulation Techniques

● Adjusting transmission rates in each frequency band, the maximum packet

durations are
● 4.25 ms for the 2.4 GHz band,
● 26.6 ms for the 915 MHz band, and
● 53.2 ms for the 868 MHz band.
● The 2.4 GHz PHY uses a 16-ary quasi-orthogonal modulation technique based on
DSSS methods.
● Binary data is grouped into 4-bit symbols, and each symbol specifies one of sixteen
nearly orthogonal 32-chip, pseudo-random noise (PN) sequences for transmission.
● PN sequences for successive data symbols are concatenated, and the aggregate
chip sequence is modulated onto the carrier using, offset-quadrature phase shift
keying (OQPSK).

©RBJ VESIT
Data Link Layer
● The data link layer (IEEE 802.15.4) is divided into two sublayers, the
MAC and LLC sub layers.
● The logical link control(LLC)is standardized in IEEE 802.2 and is
common among all IEEE 802 standards.
● The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC provides services to an IEEE 802.2 type logical
link control through the service-specifi c convergence sublayer
(SCCS), or a proprietary LLC can access the MAC services directly
without going through the SCCS.
● The SCCS ensures compatibility between different LLC sublayers and
allows the MAC to be accessed through a single set of access points.

©RBJ VESIT
Data Link Layer
● The MAC provides two services to higher
layers that can be accessed through two
service access points (SAPs).
● The MAC data service is accessed through
the MAC common part sublayer (MCPS-
SAP), and
● The MAC management services are
accessed through the MAC layer
management entity (MLME-SAP).
● These two services provide an interface
between the SCCS or another LLC and the
physical layer.
©RBJ VESIT
MAC
FRAME
FORMAT

©RBJ VESIT
MAC protocol data unit (MPDU)
The MAC protocol data unit (MPDU) consists of :
● MAC header (MHR),
● MAC service data unit (MSDU), and
● MAC footer (MFR).
● The complete MAC frame may not exceed 127 bytes in length.

©RBJ VESIT
MAC header
● 1) Frame control field: which indicates the type of MAC frame being transmitted,
specifies the format of the address field, and controls the acknowledgment. The
frame control field specifies how the rest of the frame looks and what it contains.
● 2) Sequence number: The sequence number in the MAC header matches the
acknowledgment frame with the previous transmission.
● 3)Address: The size of the address field may vary between 0 and 20 bytes. The
flexible structure of the address field helps to increase the efficiency of the protocol
by keeping the packet shorts.
● 4)The payload: field is variable in length; The data contained in the payload is
dependent on the frame type.
● 5) Frame check sequence (FCS): The FCS helps to verify the integrity of the
MAC frame. The FCS in an IEEE 802.15.4 MAC frame is a 16-bit International
Telecommunication Union — Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) cyclic
redundancy check (CRC).

©RBJ VESIT
Types of Frames
The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC has four different frame types.
● Beacon frame : that is used by a coordinator to transmit beacons.
● Data frame : that is used for all transfers of data.
● Acknowledgment frame : that is used for confirming successful frame reception.and
● MAC command frame : that is used for handling all MAC peer entity control
transfers.
● The data and beacon frames actually contain information sent by higher layers.
● The acknowledgment and MAC command frames originate in the MAC and are used
for MAC peer-to-peer communication.

©RBJ VESIT
Super frame Structure

● Some applications may require a dedicated bandwidth to achieve

low latencies.
● To accomplish these low latencies, the IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPAN can
operate in an optional super frame mode.

©RBJ VESIT
Super frame Structure
● In a super frame, a dedicated PAN
coordinator transmits super frame
beacons in predetermined intervals.
● These intervals can be as short as 15 ms
or as long as 245 seconds.
● The time between two beacons is
divided into 16 equal time slots
independent of the duration of the super
frame.
● The beacon frame is sent in the first slot
of each super frame.
● The beacons are used to synchronize the
attached devices, to identify PAN, and
describe the structure of super frames.

©RBJ VESIT
Super frame Structure

● A device can transmit at any time during

the slot, but must complete its
transaction before the next super frame
beacon.
● The channel access in time slots is
contention based; however, the PAN
coordinator may assign time slots to a
single device that requires a dedicated
bandwidth or low latency transmissions.
● These assigned time slots are called
guaranteed time slots (GTSs) and
together form a contention-free period
(CFP) located immediately before the
next beacon.

©RBJ VESIT
Super frame Structure
● In the network, the coordinator defines the format of the superframe.
● The superframe is bounded by network beacons, is sent by the coordinator,
and is divided into 16 equally sized slots.
● If a coordinator does not wish to use a superframe structure, it may turn
OFF the beacon transmissions.
● Any device wishing to communicate during the contention access period
between two beacons shall compete with other devices using a slotted
CSMA-CA mechanism. For low-latency applications or applications requiring
specific data bandwidth, the coordinator may dedicate portions of the
active superframe to that application. These portions are called guaranteed
time slots (GTSs).
©RBJ VESIT
Super frame Structure
● The size of the CFP may vary depending on the demand by the
associated network devices; when guaranteed time slots are used,
all devices must complete their contention-based transactions
before the CFP begins.
● The beginning of the CFP and duration of the super frame are
communicated to the attached network devices by the PAN
coordinator.
● The PAN coordinator may allocate up to seven of the GTSs and a
GTS can occupy more than one slot period.

©RBJ VESIT
MAC Features
● Depending on network configuration, one of two channel
access mechanisms can be used.
● In networks without beacons, unslotted CSMA-CA is used.
● In the beacon-enabled network with superframes, a slotted
carrier sense multiple access-collision avoidance (CSMA-CA)
mechanism is used.

©RBJ VESIT
Slotted Carrier Sense Multiple Access-Collision Avoidance
(CSMA-CA)

● In a beacon-enabled network, any device wishing to transmit during

the contention-access period (CAP) waits for the beginning of the
next time slot and then determines whether another device is
currently transmitting in the same slot.
● If another device is already transmitting in the slot, the device
backs off for a random number of slots or indicates a transmission
failure after some retries.
● In slotted CSMA-CA, the back off period boundaries of every device
in the PAN are aligned with the super frame slot boundaries of the
PAN coordinator.
©RBJ VESIT
Unslotted CSMA-CA
● In unslotted CSMA-CA, the backoff period of a device does
not need to be synchronized to the backoff period of another
device.
● Three levels of security are provided:
● No security of any type;
● Access control lists (noncryptographic security); and
● Symmetric key security, using AES-128.

©RBJ VESIT
Acknowledgement
● An important function of the MAC is to confirm successful reception
of a received frame.
● Successful reception and validation of a data or MAC command
frame is confirmed with an acknowledgment. If the receiving device
is unable to handle the incoming message for any reason, the
receipt is not acknowledged.
● The frame control field in MAC indicates whether or not an
acknowledgment is expected.
● The acknowledgment frame is sent immediately after successful
validation of the received frame.

©RBJ VESIT
Network Layer
● The network layer of Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) is responsible
for
● Topology construction and maintenance as well as naming
and binding services, which include the tasks of addressing,
routing, and security.
● The network layer should be self organizing and self-
maintaining to minimize energy consumption and total cost.
● IEEE 802.15.4 supports multiple network topologies,
including star, peer-to-peer, and cluster tree. The topology is
an application design choice.
©RBJ VESIT
Routing Protocols
● Routing protocols for ad hoc networks can be divided into two
groups:
1. Table driven (proactive)
● The destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV),
● Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP), and
● Cluster Switch Gateway Routing (CSGR) protocol .
2. Source-initiated on-demand-driven (reactive).
● The adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV),
● Dynamic Source Routing (DSR),
● Temporally ordered routing algorithm (TORA), and
● Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP).

©RBJ VESIT
Table Driven Protocols
● The table-driven approach has low latency and high overhead, and is
more suitable when time constraints are significant.
● The table-driven routing protocols attempt to maintain consistent, up-to-
date routing information from each node to every node in the network.
● These protocols require each node to maintain one or more tables to
store routing information, and they respond to changes in network
topology by propagating route updates throughout the network to
maintain a consistent view.
● The destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV),
● Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP), and
● Cluster Switch Gateway Routing (CSGR) protocol belong to this category.

©RBJ VESIT
Source Initiated On Demand Driven Protocols
● On the other hand, the source-initiated on-demand-driven approach has high latency
and low overhead. It is more suitable for a mobile environment with a limited
bandwidth capacity.
● The source-initiated on-demand-driven routing protocols create routes only when
desired by a source node.
● When a node requires a route to a destination, it initiates a route discovery process
within the network.
● This process is completed once a route is found or all possible route permutations have
been examined.

● The adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV),

● Dynamic Source Routing (DSR),
● Temporally ordered routing algorithm (TORA), and
● Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP) belong to this category.
©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)
● The AODV is a pure on-demand route acquisition algorithm in
which nodes that do not lie on active paths neither maintain
nor participate in any periodic routing table exchanges.
● Also, a node does not have to discover and maintain a route to
another node until the two need to communicate, unless the
former node is offering services as an intermediate forwarding
station to maintain connectivity between two other nodes.
● AODV is a single path on-demand packet routing protocol designed
for use in mobile ad hoc networks (MANET)
● Intended for networks that may contain thousands of nodes .

©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)
● The route discovery mechanism is invoked only if a route to a destination is not
known
● Source, destination and next hop are addressed using IP addressing
● Each node maintains a routing table that contains information about reaching
destination nodes.
● Each entry is keyed to a destination node.
● When a source node needs to communicate with another node for which it has no
routing information in its table, the path discovery process is initiated.
● The basic message set consists of:
RREQ – Route request
RREP – Route reply
RERR – Route error
HELLO – For link status monitoring
©RBJ VESIT
RREQ Messages
● While communication routes between nodes are valid, AODV does not
play any role.
● A RREQ message is broadcasted when a node needs to discover a route to
a destination.
● As a RREQ propagates through the network, intermediate nodes use it to
update their routing tables (in the direction of the source node).
● The RREQ also contains the most recent sequence number for the
destination.
● A valid destination route must have a sequence number at least as great
as that contained in the RREQ.
©RBJ VESIT
RREP Messages
● When a RREQ reaches a destination node, the destination route is
made available by unicasting a RREP back to the source route.
● A node generates a RREP if:
● It is itself the destination.
● It has an active route to the destination.
● Ex: an intermediate node may also respond with an RREP if it has a
“fresh enough” route to the destination.
● As the RREP propagates back to the source node, intermediate
nodes update their routing tables (in the direction of the destination
node).
©RBJ VESIT
RERR & Hello Messages
RERR message is broadcast for broken links .
● Generated directly by a node or passed on when received from another
node.
Hello Messages
● Hello Message = RREP with TTL = 1
● This message is used for broadcasting connectivity information. •
● Ex: If a neighbor node does not receive any packets (Hello messages or
otherwise) for more than ALLOWED_HELLO_LOSS * HELLO_INTERVAL m
seconds, the node will assume that the link to this neighbor is currently
lost.
● A node should use Hello messages only if it is part of an active route.
©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)

● Every node maintains two separate counters: sequence

number and broadcast id.
● The source node starts path discovery by broadcasting a route
request (RREQ) packet to its neighbors, which includes source
address; source sequence number; broadcast id; destination
address; destination sequence number; and hop count.
● The pair source address, broadcast id uniquely identify an
RREQ, where broadcast id is incremented whenever the
source issues a new RREQ.
©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)

● When an intermediate node receives an RREQ, and if it has already

received this RREQ with the same broadcast id and source address,
it drops the redundant RREQ and does not rebroadcast it.
● Otherwise, it rebroadcasts it to its own neighbors after increasing
hop count. Each node keeps the following information: destination
address, source address, broadcast id, expiration time for reverse
path route entry, and source node sequence number.
● As the RREQ travels from a source to a destination, it automatically
sets up a reverse path from all nodes back to source.

©RBJ VESIT
Routing Table
● Destination IP address
● Destination Sequence Number
● Valid Destination Sequence Number Flag
● Other state and routing flags
● Network Interface
● Hop Count (needed to reach destination)
● Next Hop
● Precursor List
● Lifetime (route expiration or deletion time)

©RBJ VESIT
Routing Table
● Routing table size is minimized by only including next hop
information, not the entire route to a destination node.
● Sequence numbers for both destination and source are used.
● Managing the sequence number is the key to efficient routing and
route maintenance.
● Sequence numbers are used to indicate the relative freshness of
routing information.
● Updated by an originating node, e.g., at initiation of route discovery
or a route reply observed by other nodes to determine freshness.

©RBJ VESIT
Example 1

©RBJ VESIT
RREQ creation

©RBJ VESIT
RREQ
Broa
dcast
ing

©RBJ VESIT
Reverse route entry

©RBJ VESIT
Rebrodcasting RREQ

©RBJ VESIT
Reverse route entry

©RBJ VESIT
Creation of Route Reply

©RBJ VESIT
Unicast RREP
● An intermediate
node C can also
send RREP
message if it
knows the most
recent path.
And this is
determined by
destination
sequence
number.

©RBJ VESIT
Forward route entry & unicast

©RBJ VESIT
Forward route entry

©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)

● A node may receive multiple RREP for a given destination from

more than one neighbor,
● The node only forwards the first RREP it receives
● May forward another RREP, if it has greater destination sequence
number or a smaller hop count,
● Rest are discarded, reduces the number of RREP propagating
towards the source,
● Source can begin data transmission upon receiving the first RREP

©RBJ VESIT
Transmission of data packet

©RBJ VESIT
Example 2
Route
Request
from S to D

©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
Route Reply

©RBJ VESIT
● Forward
path setup

©RBJ VESIT
● Data
Transfer

©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)
To set up a reverse path,
● A node records the address of the neighbor from which it received
the first copy of RREQ.
● These reverse path route entries are maintained for at least
enough time for the RREQ to traverse the network and produce a
reply to the sender.
● When the RREQ arrives at a node, possibly the destination itself,
that possesses a current route to the destination, the receiving
node first checks that the RREQ was received over a bidirectional
link.

©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)

● If this node is not the destination, but has the route to the
destination, it determines whether the route is current by
comparing the destination sequence number in its own route entry
to the destination sequence number in the RREQ.
● If the RREQ’s sequence number for the destination is greater than
that recorded by the intermediate node, the intermediate must not
use this route to respond to the RREQ, but instead rebroadcast the
RREQ.

©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)

● If the route has a destination sequence number that is greater than that
contained in the RREQ or equal to that contained in the RREQ but a
smaller hop count, it can unicast a route reply (RREP) packet back to its
neighbor from which it received the RREQ.
● A RREP contains the following information: source address, destination
address, destination sequence number, hop count, and lifetime.
● As the RREP travels back to the source, each node along the path sets up
a forward pointer to the node from which the RREP came, updates its time
out information for route entries to the source and destination, and
records the latest destination sequence number from the requested
destination.
©RBJ VESIT
Adhoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)

● Nodes that are along the path determined by the RREP will time out
after the route request expiration timer and delete the reverse pointers
since they are not on the path from the source to the destination.
● The value of this time-out time depends on the size of the ad hoc
network. Also, there is the routing caching time-out that is associated
with each route entry to show the time after which the route is
considered to be invalid.
● -Each time a route entry is used to transmit data from a source toward
a destination, the time-out for the entry is reset to the current time
plus active route time-out.

©RBJ VESIT
Path Maintenance
● For path maintenance, each node keeps the address of active neighbors through which
packets for the given destination are received.
● The neighbor is considered active if it has originated or relayed at least one packet for
that destination within the last active time-out period.
● Once the next hop on the path from the source to the destination becomes unreachable,
the node upstream of the break propagates an unsolicited RREP with a fresh sequence
number and hop count of infinity to all active upstream nodes.
● This process continues until all active source nodes are notified.
● Upon receiving the notification of a broken link, the source node can start the discovery
process if it still requires a route to the destination.
● If it decides that it would like to rebuild the route to the destination, it sends out an RREQ
with a destination sequence number of one greater than the previously known sequence
number, to ensure that it builds a new, viable route and no nodes reply if they still regard
the previous route as valid.
©RBJ VESIT
Cluster Tree Protocol
● The cluster tree is a protocol of the logical link and network layer.
● It uses link-state packets to form either a single cluster network or a
potentially larger cluster tree network.
● The network is self-organized and supports network redundancy to
attain a degree of fault resistance and self-repair.
● Nodes select a cluster head (CH) and form a cluster according to the
self organized manner.
● The self-developed clusters connect to each other using the
designated device (DD) (see next Figure ).

©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
Cluster Formation
● The cluster formation process begins with CH selection.
● After a CH is elected, the CH expands links with other member
nodes to form a cluster.
● The CH can be selected based on stored parameters of each node,
like transmission range, power capacity, computing ability, or
location information.
● After becoming the CH, the node broadcasts a periodic HELLO
message that contains a part of the cluster head MAC address and
node ID 0 that indicates the CH.

©RBJ VESIT
Cluster Formation
● The nodes that receive this message send a CONNECTION REQUEST
message to the CH.
● When the CH receives it, it responds to the node with a CONNECTION
RESPONSE message that contains a node ID for the node. The node
that is assigned a node ID replies with an ACK message to the CH.
● If all nodes are located in the range of the CH, the topology of
connection becomes a star and every member node is connected to
the CH with one hop.
● A cluster can expand into a multihop structure when each node
supports multiple connections.

©RBJ VESIT
Multi cluster network
● To form a multicluster network, a Designated Device (DD) is needed.
● The DD has the responsibility of assigning a unique cluster ID to each
CH. This cluster ID combined with the node ID that the CH assigns to
each node within a cluster forms a logical address that is used to route
packets.
● Another role of the DD is to calculate the shortest route from the cluster
to the DD and distribute it to all nodes within the network.
● When the DD joins the network, it acts as the CH of cluster 0 and starts
to send a HELLO message to the neighborhood.
● If a CH has received this message, it sends a CONNECTION REQUEST
message and joins the cluster 0.
©RBJ VESIT
Multicluster formation
● After that, the CH requests a cluster ID (CID) to the DD. In this case, the CH is
a border node that has two logical addresses. One is for a member of the
cluster 0 and the other is for a CH. When the CH gets a new CID, it informs its
member nodes by the HELLO message. The border node requests a
connection and joins the cluster 0 as its member node.
● The clusters not bordering cluster 0 use intermediate clusters to get a CID.
The CH either becomes the border node to its parent cluster or it names a
member node as the border to its parent cluster.
● Each member node of the cluster has to record its parent cluster, child/lower
clusters, and border node IDs associated with the parent and child clusters.
The DD should store the whole structure of the clusters.
● The CHs report their link state information to the DD.

©RBJ VESIT
Multi cluster formation
● A backup DD can be prepared to prevent network down-time due to the
DD trouble.
● Inter-cluster communication is realized by routing.
● The border nodes act as routers that connect clusters and relay packets
between clusters.
● When a border node receives a packet, it examines the destination
address, then forwards it to the next border node in the adjacent cluster
or to the destination node within its own cluster.
● Only the DD can send a message to all nodes within the network.
● The message is forwarded along the tree route of clusters.
● The border node should forward the broadcast packet from the parent
cluster to the child cluster.
©RBJ VESIT
Applications
● The IEEE 802.15.4 has been designed to be useful in a wide variety of
applications,
● Sensing and location determination at disaster sites;
● Automotive sensing, such as tire pressure monitoring;
● Smart badges and tags;
● Precision agriculture, such as the sensing of soil moisture, pesticide,
herbicide, and pH levels.
● Home automation and networking including heating, ventilation, air
conditioning, security, and lighting; the control of objects such as
curtains, windows, doors, and locks; health monitoring, including
sensors, monitors, and diagnostics; and toys and games.
©RBJ VESIT