The Atomic Model

Atom is a Greek word which means “

indivisible.”

The tiny indivisible particle called an

“atom”
 Atom Model

The tiny atomic nucleus is the center of an atom. It constitutes positively

charged particles, “protons,” and uncharged particles, “neutrons.”
On the other hand, the extra nucleus part is a much larger region. It
consists of a cloud of negatively charged particles called an electron.
Electrons revolve in orbit around the nucleus.
The attraction between the protons and electrons holds the structure of
the atom together.
 Atom Model

• Generally, all atoms except hydrogen consist of these three subatomic

particles.
• Hydrogen is an exception to all atoms as it contains just one proton and
one electron but lacks neutrons.
• The number of protons indicates what element an atom is.
• The number of electrons indicates the type of reactions in an atom.
• The atomic nucleus in the structure of an atom consists of a fixed number
of protons. Also, the proton attracts the same number of electrons,
making an atom electrically neutral.
• The addition or removal of electrons from an atom results in the
 Atom Model

By the end of the 18th and early 20th centuries, many

scientists developed and proposed several concepts on the
“atom.”
• John Dalton's atomic model: Dalton's Billiard Ball (Solid
Sphere) Model
• J.J. Thomson's model: Plum Pudding model.
• Ernest Rutherford's model: Nuclear model.
• Niels Bohr's model: Planetary model.
• Sommer Field: The orbits may be both circular and elliptical
 The Atomic Models

Sommer Field Atom Model-1919

 The theory of the atomists was based on a number of
assumptions:
• Matter is everlasting — no material thing can come from nothing, nor can
any material thing pass into nothing;
• Material things consist of very small indivisible particles—the word "atom"
meant "uncuttable" in Greek and, in discussing the ideas of the early
atomists, we could use the word "indivisibles" instead of the word
"atoms";
• Atoms differ primarily in their sizes and shapes;
• The atoms exist in otherwise space (the void) that separates them, and
because of this space, they are capable of movement from one place to
 The theory of the atomists was based on a number of
assumptions:
• The atoms are in continual motion, although the nature and
cause of the motion are not clear;
• In their motions, atoms come together and form combinations,
the material substances we know; when the atoms forming
these combinations separate, the substances decay or break
up. Thus, the combinations and separations of atoms give rise
to the changes which take place in the world;
• The combinations and separations occur in accordance with
natural laws that are not yet clear but do not require the action
 Dalton’s Atom Model
1808(1808)
-Dalton proposed a modern
atomic model.
Dalton’s Model of the Atom
•The matter is composed of very small particles known as atoms.
•Atoms are indivisible (That cannot be divided) and cannot be destroyed
through chemical reactions.
•All atoms of an element have identical chemical properties and mass.
• Atoms arrange in different combinations to form different
compounds

Drawbacks of Dalton’s Theory:

•Dalton said that the atoms of the same element are similar in all
respects, and the atoms of different elements are different in all respects.
•Various other scientists discovered that atoms were made of electron,
protons and neutrons
• His ideas account for the law of conservation of mass (atoms are neither
created nor destroyed).
 Joseph John Thompson: Atom
Model (1904)
• J. J. Thomson 1898 proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape
(radius approximately 10–10 m) in which the positive charge is uniformly
distributed.
• The electrons are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the
most stable electrostatic arrangement.
• The discovery of subatomic particles led to the search for how the
subatomic particles are arranged in an atom.
• J.J. Thomson was the first and one of the many scientists to propose
models for the structure of an atom.
• J.J. Thomson discovered negatively charged particles by cathode ray
tube experiment in 1897. The particles were named electrons.
• J.J Thomson believed electrons to be much lighter than a proton.
• He assumed that an atom is composed of a cloud of negative charge in
a sphere of positive charges.
• J.J Thomson and Rutherford first demonstrated the ionization of air in X-
rays.
 Thomson Model’s
Postulates:
• The atom is neutrally charged.
• There is a source of positive charge that cancels out electrons’ negative charge.
• This positive charge is distributed equally across the atom.
• According to Thomson, “negatively electrified corpuscles,” or electrons, are contained
within the uniform mass of positive charge.
• Electrons could freely move within the atom.
• The electrons possessed stable orbits
• J.J. Thomson’s atomic model was generally known as a plum pudding model because
the electron distribution predicted by Thomson was comparable to the arrangement of
plums in that delicacy.
 Joseph John Thompson: Atom
We can also compare this to a Model
watermelon, with the positive charge
dispersed throughout the edible part of the watermelon and electrons
studded in that sphere, as shown in the figure below:
 Joseph John Thompson: Atom
Model
Conclusion:

Despite the fact that Thomson’s atomic model was inaccurate and had a
few flaws, it served as the foundation for several subsequent atomic
structure models.
It is one of the foundation models that later led to significant and
breakthrough inventions. Limitations:
• This model was the most fundamental of all the others.
• It had many flaws, but it annoyed the interest of other scientists and
paved the path for additional important discoveries in the subject.
• The model did not mention the presence of a nucleus in the atom.
• It couldn’t account for the atom’s stability.
• It could not explain Rutherford’s scattering experiment and the
scattering of alpha particles when projected on gold foils.

Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of
electricity in gases.
 Rutherford Atom Model-(1911): A Nuclear
Model
The scattering of α–Particle was investigated.

Ernest
Rutherford

Experiment:
• α-particle are emitted from a radioactive source ‘A”
• After passing through the diaphragms D1 and D2, a narrow beam of α-particle is incident
on the thin gold foil
• Passing through the gold foil, the α-particle are scattered through different angles
• When an α-particle is incident on ZnS, it produces fluorescence, and it is detected with
the help of the microscope.
 Rutherford Atom Model-(1911): A Nuclear
Model

An alpha particle trying to collide head-on with the nucleus shows down due to the
repulsive force of the nucleus, finally stops, and is then repelled back. This alpha particle,
therefore, retraces its path, scattering through 180°.
 Rutherford Atom Model-(1911): A Nuclear Model
Conclusion:
• At the center of the atom, there is a nucleus of radius approximately 10-
14
m in which the entire positive charge and the entire mass of an atom
are concentrated.
• The electrons are distributed in a hollow sphere of radius nearly 10 -10 m.
• The total negative charge of an electron is equal to the positive charge
of the nucleus.
• The electron does not reside stationary around the nucleus; otherwise,
the electrons are due to the attractive force of positive charge. The
charge of the nucleus will fall into the nucleus, and the atom will no
longer be stable. Rutherford assumed that the electron revolves around
the nucleus in circular orbits.
In classical physics, it was predicted that an electron moving in a circular orbit would continuously lose energy
in the form of electromagnetic radiation, due to its acceleration. As the electron radiates energy, its orbit would
gradually decay, and it would eventually spiral into the nucleus, causing the atom to collapse.

However, quantum mechanics introduced a new understanding:

1.Quantized Orbits: Niels Bohr proposed that electrons can only occupy specific, quantized energy levels.
These energy levels correspond to discrete orbits around the nucleus, where the electron does not lose energy as
radiation. In these orbits, the electron’s energy remains constant, preventing it from spiraling into the nucleus.

2.Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: According to this principle, we cannot simultaneously know the exact
position and momentum of an electron. This creates a natural "uncertainty" in the electron’s position, preventing
it from falling into the nucleus.

3.Wave-Particle Duality: The electron behaves like both a particle and a wave. Instead of following a fixed
path, the electron’s position is described by a probability distribution (electron cloud), which gives the
likelihood of finding the electron in a particular region around the nucleus. This quantum nature of electrons
helps stabilize their position and prevents them from collapsing into the nucleus.
 Rutherford and the atom

An atom is mostly empty space, and its positive charge is

concentrated in a dense mass at its core, forming a nucleus.
When the positively charged alpha particles were fired at the
gold foil, most of them passed through the empty space of the
gold atoms with little deflection, but a few of them ran smack
into the dense, positively charged nucleus of a gold atom and
were repelled straight back (like what would happen if you tried
to make the north poles of two strong magnets touch).
The idea that atoms have positively charged nuclei was testable.
Rutherford tested it with the alpha particle scattering
 Rutherford Atom Model-(1911): A Nuclear
• Modelof an atom.
This model could not explain the stability
• According to the electromagnetics theory, each accelerated charged particle emits
energy continuously as an EM wave.
• According to Rutherford's model, since the electron revolves around the nucleus in a
circular path, it has centripetal acceleration, so the electron revolving around the
nucleus in an atom continuously emits energy in the form of EM waves, due to which its
energy decreases.
• Due to a continuous decrease in electron energy, the radius of the circular path also
decreases continuously. Then, the electron moving in a spiral path will ultimately fall into
the nucleus, and then the atom will not remain stable.

• According to Rutherford's model, electrons can rotate in any orbit of any radius and thus must emit EM radiation of all
frequencies. This is also contrary to the experimental results.

• Experimentally, it is found that atoms, like hydrogen atoms, emit line spectra of fixed frequencies only and not of all
frequencies.
Bohr Atom Model -Derivation
 THE BOHR ATOM
The first successful theory of the atom was proposed by
Model Niels Bohr in 1913. While the
concept of matter waves naturally leads to this theory, as discovered by de Broglie, Bohr
took a different approach, making his achievement even more impressive, considering de
Broglie’s work came a decade later.
Nevertheless, the results are essentially the same. We begin by exploring the wave-like
behavior of an electron orbiting a hydrogen nucleus. In this chapter, when considering
relativistic effects, we will assume that the electron velocities are much smaller than the
speed of light (c), and we will set v=1 for simplicity, omitting terms related to this from the
equations. Electron Velocities Much Smaller Than c: In this context, "c" refers to
the speed of light. The electron’s velocity in an atom is much smaller
compared to the speed of light (i.e., v ≪c). This means relativistic effects
(such as those predicted by Einstein’s theory of relativity) are negligible
for the electron’s motion in an atom.
The de Broglie wavelength
We will assume that v=1 and omit from the various equations: This
of this electron is
likely refers to the assumption that relativistic effects are so small that
they can be ignored in the equations. Specifically, the term involving the
speed of light cc (in relativistic corrections) can be neglected since the
electron's speed is much smaller than c. For simplicity, the equations are
simplified by excluding terms related to these relativistic corrections.
Supporting
THE BOHR ATOM
Model
THE BOHR ATOM
Model
 THE BOHR ATOM
The lowest energy level E1 is called the ground
Modelstate of Figure: Energy levels of the hydrogen atom.
the atom, and the higher levels E2, E3, E4, . . . are called
excited states.
As the quantum number n increases, the corresponding
energy En approaches closer to 0.
In the limit of n, E0 and the electron is no longer bound to
the nucleus to form an atom.
A positive energy for a nucleus-electron combination The shapes on the left side of the
means that the electron is free and has no quantum diagram represent the
probability distributions
conditions to fulfill; such a combination does not (orbitals) for the electron in
constitute an atom, of course. different energy levels.
For n=1, the electron is closest to
The work needed to remove an electron from an atom in the nucleus, and the shape is
its ground state is called its ionization energy. spherical.
As n increases, the orbitals
The ionization energy (E0 - E1) is accordingly equal to E1, become more complex, with
the energy that must be provided to raise an electron from multiple lobes or regions of
probability.
its ground state to an energy of E0, when it is free.
In the case of hydrogen, the ionization energy is 13.6 eV
since the ground-state energy of the hydrogen atom is
THE BOHR ATOM
Model
 Quantization in the Atomic World
Sequences of energy levels are characteristic of all atoms, not just those of hydrogen. As in
the case of a particle in a box, the confinement of an electron to a region of space leads to
restrictions on its possible wave functions that in turn limit the possible energies to well-
defined values only. The existence of atomic energy levels is a further example of the
quantization, or graininess, of physical quantities on a microscopic scale.
In the world of our daily lives, matter, electric charge, energy, and so forth appear to be
continuous. In the world of the atom, in contrast, matter is composed of elementary particles
that have definite rest masses, charge always comes in multiples of e or electromagnetic
waves of frequency appear as streams of photons each with the energy hν, and stable
systems of particles, such as atoms, can possess only certain energies. As we shall find, other
quantities in nature are also quantized, and this quantization enters into every aspect of how
electrons, protons, and neutrons interact to endow the matter around us (and of which we
consist) with its familiar properties.
 Quantization of energy is the principle that energy can only take specific, discrete values, especially in atomic
systems.
 This explains why electrons in atoms occupy only certain orbits with specific energies, and why energy is emitted or
absorbed in discrete quantities (photons).
 The concept of quantum numbers and energy quantization is foundational in atomic theory and quantum mechanics,
leading to a better understanding of atomic structure and behavior.
 Hydrogen
spectrum
Hydrogen
spectrum
Equation (4.18) states that the radiation emitted by excited hydrogen atoms should contain certain wavelengths
only. These wavelengths, furthermore, fall into definite sequences that depend upon the quantum number nf of
the final energy level of the electron (Fig. 4.16).
Since ni nf in each case, in order that there be an excess of energy to be given off as a photon, the calculated
formulas for the first five series are
 Hydrogen
spectrum

These sequences are identical in form with the empirical spectral series discussed earlier.

The Lyman series corresponds to nf 1; the Balmer series corresponds to nf 2; the Paschen series
corresponds to nf 3; the Brackett series corresponds to nf 4; and the Pfund series corresponds to nf
5.

Our final step is to compare the value of the constant term in the above equations with that of the
Rydberg constant in Eqs. (4.6) to (4.10). The value of the constant term is

which is indeed the same as R. Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom is therefore in accord with the
spectral data.
Example
Sommerfeld Atomic
Model
 Limitations of Bohr's
Theory

1. Spectra of Large atoms; The Bohr model could only

successfully explain the hydrogen spectrum. It could not
accurately calculate the spectral lines of larger atoms. The
model only worked for hydrogen-like atoms, if the atom had only one
electron.
2. Relative Spectra Intensity: Bohr's model could not explain why
the spectra lines’ intensity were not equal.
 Limitations of Bohr's
Theory

3. Hyperfine spectral lines: with better equipment and careful

observation, it was found that there were previously undiscovered
spectral lines. These were named hyperfine lines, and they accompanied
the other more visible lines. Bohr's model could not explain why this
was the case due to the lack of equipment and development in
quantum physics.

4. The Zeeman Effect: It was found that when hydrogen gas was
excited in a magnetic field, the produced emission spectrum was
split. Bohr's model could not account for this. This is solved by
 Sommerfeld Atomic
Model
This model explains the fine spectrum of the Hydrogen atom. The important postulates of the
Sommerfeld atomic model are :

1. Theorbits may be both circular and

elliptical.

2 When the path is elliptical, there are two axes – major axis & minor
axis. When the length of the major & minor axis becomes equal, then
the orbit is circular.
 Sommerfeld Atomic
Model
The path of an electron around the nucleus is an ellipse, with the
nucleus at one of its foci.
The electron’s velocity moving in an elliptical orbit varies at
different parts of the orbit. This causes the relativistic variation
in the mass of the moving electron.

This model of the atom is called the RELATIVISTIC ATOM MODEL

 Sommerfeld Atomic
Modelr2 r1
r O2
O O1
r

One Variable: O Two Variaables: O & r

In a circular path, only θ (angular displacement) is variable, but in an
elliptical path, both θ and r (radius vector) are variable, so only one
quantum number ‘n’ is inadequate to explain all atomic problems.
•distance of the electron from the nucleus
(r).
• angular position of the electron with
respect to the nucleus i.e the azimuthal
angle φ
 Sommerfeld Atomic
Model
3. The angular momentum of an electron moving in an elliptical orbit is
(kh/2π), where k is an integer except zero. Value of k = 1, 2,3,4….. .
(n/k) = length of major axis/length of minor axis.
With the increase in the value of k, the ellipticity of the orbit decreases.

When n= k, then the orbit is circular. The value of k can be equal to n, n-

1,n-2, …till 1.
(k=0 is not possible; if k=0, the electron can travel through the nucleus. It
is not possible).
Sommer filed Elliptical electron orbit n=4
 Sommerfeld Atomic
Model
Sommerfeld suggested that orbits are made up of sub-energy levels.
These are s, p, d, f. These sub-shells possess slightly different energies.
*Bohr gave a quantum number ‘n’, which determines the energy of the
electron.
Sommerfeld introduced a new quantum number called Orbital or
Azimuthal Quantum number ( l ), which determines the orbital
angular momentum of the electron.
* Values of l =0 to (n-1)
For, n=1 ; l=0 ; 1s sub shell
n=2 ; l=0,1 ; 2s , 2p sub shell
n=3 ; l=0,1 ,2 ; 3s , 3p , 3d sub shell
n=4 ; l=0, 1, 2 , 3 ; 4s , 4p , 4d , 4f sub shell
 Sommerfeld Atomic
Model
4. Sommerfeld introduced a new quantum number called Orbital or
Azimuthal Quantum number ( l ), which determines the orbital angular
momentum of the electron.
* Values of l =0 to (n-1)
For, n=1 ; l=0 ; 1s sub shell
n=2 ; l=0,1 ; 2s , 2p sub shell
n=3 ; l=0,1 ,2 ; 3s , 3p , 3d sub shell
n=4 ; l=0, 1, 2 , 3 ; 4s , 4p , 4d , 4f sub shell
 Sommerfeld Atomic
5. When an electron jumps from one orbit to another, the energy difference (ΔE ) depends upon
sub-energy levels.
Model
6. It explains the splitting of individual spectral lines of hydrogen & thus fine spectrum. It could
not
In thepredict
hydrogenthe exact number
spectrum, the linesof lines
like Hα, that are etc.,
Hβ, Hγ, actually present
refer to specific in the fineofspectrum.
transitions electrons in the hydrogen atom.
These lines are part of the Balmer series, which corresponds to transitions of electrons from higher energy levels (with n>2) to
the n=2 energy level. Each of these transitions emits light at specific wavelengths, and they are named as follows:

Hα , n=3 The pattern continues as follows:

n=3
 Hε: n=7 to n=2
 Hζ: n=8 to n=2
 Hη: n=9 to n=2
n=2

n=1 Epsilon (ε); Zeta (ζ); Eta (η).

 Sommerfeld Atomic
Model
l=2
Hα , n=3 l=1 n=3
n=3 l=0

n=2

l=1
n=1 n=2
l=0

l=0 n=1

1  1 1 

RH 2  2 , n 3,4,5,...
λ 2 n 
 
 Sommerfeld Atomic
• However, like Bohr’s atomic Model
model, this model fails to
explain the emission spectrum of atoms or ions with
more than one electron.

• It could not explain the distribution and arrangement of electrons in atoms.

•
• This model does not explain the Zeeman & Stark effect.

• This model does not explain the intensities of the spectral lines.

• Additionally, electrons have been considered as particles in

Sommerfeld’s atomic model. And their speed and place are
completely fixed. After discovering the electron’s dual nature
of electrons and recognizing Heisenberg’s principle of
 The Origins of Quantum Mechanics

• In 1900 Planck “solves” the blackbody problem by postulating

that the oscillators that emit light have quantized energy levels.
• In 1905, Einstein proposed that light energy is quantized into
units called "photons," demonstrating that waves can exhibit
particle-like behavior. He received the Nobel Prize for his work on
the photoelectric effect, which provided experimental evidence
for this theory.
• 1913 Bohr proposes that electron orbits are quantized
• Idea that electrons act like waves - “explained” H atom, but
wrong in crucial ways
 The Origins of Quantum Mechanics

1923 de Broglie proposes that particles behave like waves

1925 Pauli introduces the “exclusion principle” – only 2
electrons/orbital
1926 Schrödinger introduces the wave formulation of QM
The fundamental equation that predicts the nature of
matter
1927 Heisenberg uncertainty principle
The principle that shows the fundamental uncertainty in
any one measurement
1928 Dirac combines quantum mechanics and special
relativity
The step that made QM “the most successful theory in the
history of physics” – description of atoms, nuclei,
 Quantum Physics / Quantum
Mechanics
Wave-Particle Duality

Double Slit Experiment

Superposition

Quantum Computing Quantum Tunnelling

 Superposition
Superposition - Single system with multiple states
Quantum superposition is a principle that allows particles, such as
electrons and photons, to exist in multiple states or locations
simultaneously until it is measured.
Widely referred to as Schrödinger’s cat, while the box is
closed, a determination cannot be made as to whether the cat
is dead or alive. So, the cat can be thought of as both dead and
alive at the same time. This is a superposition of both possible
states of the cat’s life.
Once the box is opened, thereby a measurement is made,
then the quantum state collapses to either dead or alive. But
until a measurement is made by opening the box, the cat is
both dead and alive. Not one or the other. This property is
quantum superposition.
This unique and sometimes difficult-to-comprehend quantum
behavior is now widely used to develop technology based on
Schrödinger’s cat, a famous thought experiment designed by Erwin Schrödinger in 1935 to illustrate the concept of
quantum superposition and the counterintuitive nature of quantum mechanics.
1.Schrödinger's Cat Thought Experiment:
1. Setup: A cat is placed inside a sealed box with a radioactive atom, a Geiger counter, a vial of poison, and a hammer.
If the Geiger counter detects radiation from the decaying atom, the hammer breaks the vial of poison, killing the
cat. If no radiation is detected, the cat remains alive.
2. Quantum Superposition: While the box is closed, the quantum state of the radioactive atom is in a superposition
of decayed and non-decayed states. According to quantum mechanics, the cat is also in a superposition of being
both dead and alive at the same time, if the box is closed, and no measurement is made.
3. Measurement and Collapse: Once the box is opened and an observation is made, the quantum state of the cat
"collapses" to one of the two possible outcomes: either dead or alive, depending on the state of the radioactive
atom.
2.Quantum Superposition:
1. This idea exemplifies quantum superposition, where a particle (or system) can exist in multiple states at once until
measured. For Schrödinger’s cat, this means that, before observation, the cat is both dead and alive at the same
time.
3.Real-World Applications:
1. While this thought experiment is a paradox meant to highlight the strange nature of quantum mechanics, it
demonstrates principles used in modern quantum technology, such as quantum computing.
2. In quantum computing, qubits can exist in a superposition of states, allowing them to perform calculations in
parallel, leading to faster processing power compared to classical computers.
Conclusion:
Schrödinger’s cat is a way to visualize the concept of quantum superposition. It shows that quantum systems can exist in
multiple states at the same time until a measurement is made, which is a fundamental idea in quantum mechanics, leading to
 Quantum
Entanglement
Quantum entanglement occurs when two or more particles become so deeply connected
that the state of one particle directly affects the state of another, no matter how far apart
they are in space. This connection remains intact even if the particles are separated by
enormous distances, challenging our traditional understanding of space, time, and
causality. The instantaneous nature of this relationship seems to challenge classical
physics, where information can only travel at the speed of light.

 SEW (Spin Encoded Wavicle): This suggests that the photons

(represented by circles labeled A and B) are entangled and exhibit wave-  Photon 1 and Photon 2 are entangled.
particle duality, meaning they behave like both waves and particles.  Red and Blue: These likely represent different states or
 Photon A (Spin down) and Photon B (Spin up): This represents two
properties of the photons (such as polarization, spin, or
entangled photons that are oppositely polarized. When one photon has color of light). The key point is that if one photon is
spin up (represented by the dotted circle), the other photon must have spin
observed to be red, the other photon must be blue, and vice
down (solid circle), even if they are far apart. This is a manifestation of
versa.
spin entanglement.  Measurement Outcome: When measuring one photon (e.g.,
 The entangled photons are connected in such a way that measuring the
Photon 1), you instantly know the state of the other photon
spin of one photon will instantly determine the spin of the other,
(Photon 2), even if they are separated by vast distances.
regardless of the distance separating them. This demonstrates the
instantaneous correlation that quantum entanglement produces. This illustrates the non-locality of quantum entanglement.
 Quantum Computing Quantum
Tunnelling
The concept of Quantum Tunneling in the context of Quantum Computing, comparing it to classical mechanics.

According to Classical Mechanics:

 The diagram shows an electron (represented as a particle) approaching a potential barrier.
 In classical mechanics, an electron would need enough energy to climb over the potential barrier to appear on the other side. This is
because classical physics dictates that particles cannot cross an energy barrier unless they have sufficient energy to surpass it.
 The electron's energy is shown as being insufficient to overcome the barrier, meaning it cannot pass through the barrier.
According to Quantum Mechanics (Tunneling Effect):
 In quantum mechanics, however, an electron does not need to have enough energy to climb over the potential barrier.
 Instead, quantum tunneling allows the electron to "tunnel" through the barrier and appear on the other side, even if it doesn’t have
enough classical energy to surmount the barrier.
 This phenomenon occurs because quantum particles, like electrons, have wave-like properties, and their wavefunctions can extend
across barriers, allowing the possibility of the particle passing through the barrier even when classical mechanics would forbid it.
 Wave-Particle
The classical mechanics of NewtonDuality
and the electromagnetism
of Maxwell
seem to indicate that particles and waves are very different entities.
However, experimental observations in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s
suggested that it might not be so.
Wave-Particle Duality is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics,
which states that every particle or quantum entity can exhibit both
particle-like and wave-like behavior, depending on the situation. This
concept challenges classical physics, where particles and waves were
considered distinct entities, and is central to understanding the behavior of
matter and light at quantum scales.
Particles Waves
• Discrete and occupy space • Extended, do not occupy space
• Exist in only one location at a time • Can exist in more than one location
• Position and velocity can be at a time
determined with infinite accuracy • Wavelength, speed can be
• Interact by collisions, scattering. determined with infinite accuracy
Under certain circumstances, particles may behave•asInteract by interference,
waves and waves diffraction.
may behave as particles
 Wave-particle Duality Of Light

The principle of wave-particle duality can be naturally split into two partial
principles:
(i) the principle of wave-particle duality of light
(ii)the principle of wave-particle duality of matter
Evidence for wave-nature of light
• Diffraction and interference
Evidence for particle-nature of light
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect

•Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that are only explicable in terms of wave
properties
•Light is always detected as packets (photons); if we look, we never observe half a photon
•Number of photons proportional to energy density (i.e. to square of electromagnetic field strength)
 Wave-Particle
Waves as Waves : (X-ray Diffraction)
Wave as Particle
Duality
: Compton Effect-1923; Photoelectric Effect
Particle as Wave : (Double Slit Experiment)
Particles as Waves : Diffraction of Electrons - The Davisson-Germer
Experiment

Photoelectric Effect (Left): In this experiment, light shines on sodium metal in a vacuum, ejecting electrons from the metal's
surface. This showed that light behaves like particles (photons), as only light above a certain frequency could eject electrons,
demonstrating the particle-like properties of light.
This experiment helped establish that light has discrete energy packets (photons), which could transfer energy to electrons and cause
their ejection.
Davisson-Germer Experiment (Right): In this experiment, electrons are directed at a nickel crystal, and the scattering of the
electrons is observed. A scattering peak is observed at a specific angle (50°), which demonstrates that electrons behave like waves.
This experiment provided evidence for the wave-like properties of electrons, as the diffraction pattern is characteristic of wave
behavior.
 The Light and Photon
Light consists of discrete particles known as photons that carry identical
quantities of energy, that depend on the frequency of the oscillation
(Light is an Electromagnetic wave: Produced by oscillating magnetic and
electric fields).

The Photon
To explain certain experimental observations of the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with matter, it is necessary to describe the
radiation as a beam of photons: particles or quanta of energy with mass
zero, moment P = h / λ, and energy E = h c / λ, (Simply E=hν) instead of
 The de Broglie Hypothesis
Louis de Broglie proposed in 1924 that the wave-particle duality that had
been adopted for radiation, was also valid for particles.
Not only waves may behave as particles (under certain conditions) but also
particles (in particular electrons) may behave as waves.
De Broglie proposed the following relations for the frequency and
wavelength of the wave associated with an electron:
E=hν; ν = E / h ; λ = h / p;
E is the total energy, and
p is the momentum, of the particle or electron,
and λ is called the de Broglie wavelength of the particle.
Wave-Particle Duality
1. The correlation between particles and waves was proposed by de Broglie: ν
= E / h; λ = h / p
2. For a non-relativistic particle p = mv and E = p2/2m
3. For a relativistic particle E2 = (mc2 )2 + p2c2
4.For a photon m = 0 then E = pc and ν = p c / h or p = h / λ and E =
hc/λ
De Broglie’s hypothesis of wave-particle
duality was confirmed by Davisson and
Germer (1927) and G.P. Thomson (1927)
[refer to Eisberg & Resnick, pg 64 – 67].
 Double-Slit Experiment- Thomas Young (1800)

Thomas Young's Double-Slit Experiment (1800), which demonstrated the wave-like nature of
light. In the experiment, light passes through two slits, producing interference patterns on a
screen. When the waves from the two slits add together, they create bright fringes
(constructive interference), and when they cancel each other out, they produce dark fringes
(destructive interference). This experiment showed that light behaves as a wave, as the
interference patterns could only be explained through wave interactions. The second image
shows the resulting interference pattern on the screen.
 Convenient Units for Quantum
Mechanics
Because most of the applications we will consider involve atoms,
it is useful to use units appropriate to those objects.

We will express wavelength in nanometers (nm).

We will express energy in electron volts (eV).

1 eV = energy an electron gains moving across a one-volt potential difference: 1 eV =

(1.6022 x 10-19 Coulomb)(1 volt) = 1.6022 x 10-19 Joules.

Therefore, SI units: h = 6.626 x 10-34 J-s and hc = 1.986 x 10-25 J-m

eV units: h = 4.14 x 10-15 eV-s, and hc = 1240 eV-nm.

hc 1240 eV nm Ephoton in electron volts

E photon   l in nanometers
 
Example: A red photon with l = 620 nm has E = 2 eV.
Estimate some de Broglie wavelengths

• Wavelength of electron with 50eV kinetic energy

p2 h2 h  10
K     1.7 10 m
2me 2me  2
2me K
• Wavelength of Nitrogen molecule at room temp.

3kT
K , Mass 28m u
2
h
 2.8 10 11 m
3MkT
• Wavelength of Rubidium(87) atom at 50nK

h
 1.2 10 6 m
3MkT
 SUMMARY OF PHOTON PROPERTIES

Relation between particle and wave properties of light

Energy and frequency E h

Also have relation between momentum and wavelength

Relativistic formula relating 2 2 2 2 4

energy and momentum E p c  m c
For light E  pc and c 
hh
p 
 c
Also commonly write these as wavevector
2 h
E  p k  2 k 
angular frequency  hbar 2
 Quantum or Wave Mechanics
• Light has both wave & particle properties
• de Broglie (1924) proposed that all moving objects have wave
properties.
L. de Broglie
(1892-1987)
• For light: E = hn = hc / l
• For particles: E = mc2 (Einstein)

Therefore, mc = h / l

and for particles

(mass)x(velocity) = h / l

l for particles is called the de Broglie wavelength

Thank you