Optical Communication and Networks

ECC801
Dr. Ranjan bala jain
Professor
Department of EXTC
VESIT
Welcome to the
world of Optical
Communication
and Networks
©RBJ VESIT
● W hen you

● E nter this class

● L earning is Fun And

● C ooperation is Expected

● O ur Positive Attitude and

● M utual respect are part of

● E verything We do and Say....

©RBJ VESIT
©RBJ VESIT
Course Objectives
1. Introduction to optical fiber network it’s need, elements and
fundamentals.
2. To learn Parameters that limits the repeaterless transmission , its
mitigation and Managing techniques.
3. To learn high speed optical sources, detectors and Amplifiers.
4. Study the multiplexing schemes SDH ,PDH and WDM and its applications
for current and NGNs.
5. To have an insight into optical packet switched, bust switched and
advanced networks.
6. Learn high speed network management techniques and challenges in its
counterpart Free Space Optics
©RBJ VESIT
Course Outcomes
On successful completion, of course, learner/student will be able to
1. Understand optical networks at large by identifying the types of fibers,
cables and deployment.
2. Design point to point optical fiber communication links using appropriate
optical fibers, light sources, couplers, detectors, and multiplexers.
3. Design a short haul or long-haul optical network with repeater by
incorporating suitable amplifiers.
4. Compare SDH, PDH and WDM techniques and implement.
5. Explore concepts of designing and operating principles of modern optical
communication systems and networks.
6. Apply the knowledge acquired to design the next generation fiber and FSO
networks for indoor and outdoor applications
©RBJ VESIT
Prerequisite
● FEC102 - Engineering Physics-I
● FEC202 - Engineering Physics-II
● ECC302 - Electronic Devices & Circuits
● ECC405 - Principles of Communication Engineering
● ECC501 - Digital Communication
● ECC601 - Electromagnetic and Antenna

©RBJ VESIT
Module 1: Introduction and Basics of
Optical fiber communication
1.1 History, need, advantages and disadvantages of optical
fiber communication, Optical Bands and Windows, Fiber optic
applications.

1.2 Light Propagation in optical Fiber, Types of optical fibers,

Modes in optical fiber.

1.3 Fiber Fabrication techniques, Fiber Joints, Connectors and

Splices
©RBJ VESIT
Module 2: Transmission Characteristic of Optical Fiber

2.1 Transmission losses in the optical fiber: Attenuation

mechanisms (Absorption losses, Radiation losses and linear
scattering losses), Measurement of attenuation, OTDR.

2.2 Dispersion in Optical fiber: Types of Dispersion and their

compensation, Dispersion compensated, Dispersion shifted
and dispersion flattened Fibers.
Module 3: Optical Communication Systems

● 3.1 Working principle and characteristics of optical sources

(LED, LASER, VCEL)
● 3.2 Working principle and characteristics of detectors (PIN,
APD), Optical receivers and their performance, coherent and
non-coherent detection
● 3.3 Point to point links system considerations, link power
budget, and rise time budge
Module 4: Optical Network System Components and Optical Networks

4.1 Fiber Optic Devices: Couplers, isolators, circulators,

multiplexers, Optical routers and filters, fiber gratings, Fabry
parot filter and switches, wavelength converters, Add drop
multiplexers, Optical Amplifiers.
4.2 Need of SONET/SDH, SONET and SDH standards, protection
schemes in SONET/SDH.
Module 5: Optical Networks
5.1 Operational principle of WDM, WDM network elements,
Types of WDM 6 Networks.

5.2 OTDM, multiplexing and de-multiplexing.

5.3 FTTH networks

Module 6: Network Design and advances in Optical Networks

6.1 Network management functions (configuration

management, performance management, fault
management) and optical safety

6.2 Introduction to free space optics and its challenges

6.3 Photonic Crystal Fiber and applications

Books
1. John M. Senior, ―Optical Fiber Communication‖, Prentice Hall of India Publication,
Chicago, 3rd Edition, 2013
2. Gerd Keiser, ―Optical Fiber Communication‖, Mc-Graw Hill Publication , Singapore,
4th Edition, 2012
3. T.L.Singhal –Optical Fiber Communication Principles and Applications, Cambridge
Press, Edition 2016
4. Kumar Sivarajan and Rajiv Ramaswamy, Morgan Kauffman, Optical Networks: A
Practical Perspective, Elsevier Publication Elsevier India Pvt. Ltd, 3rd Edition, 2010.
5. Ivan B. Djordjevin,__Advanced Optical and Wireless Communication
Systems,Springer,Edition 2018.
6. Debasish Datta,Optical Networks,Oxword Cambridge University Press,2021
7. Kaushal, H.Jain, V.K. Kar,S, Free Space Optical Communication ,Springer,2017
Reference Book
1. G Agarwal, ―Fiber optic communication Systems‖, John Wiley and Sons,
3rd Edition, New York 2014
2. Rajiv Ramaswami and Kumar N. Sivarajan, ―Optical Networks: A Practical
Perespective‖, Elsevier Publication Elsevier India Pvt.ltd, 3rd Edition, 2010
3. P.E.Green, ―Optical Networks‖, Prentice Hall,1994
4. Biswanath Mukherjee, ―Optical Communication Networks‖, McGraw-Hill,
1997.
5. Le Nguyen Binh, ―Optical Fiber Communication System: Theory and
Practice with MATLAB and Simulink‖, CRC Press, 2010
6. Harry G. Parros, Communication Oriented Networks, Wiley
Introduction
• Optical Communication is the most modern mode of wired
communication.
• Optical communication is also the youngest mode of
communication.
• However its capabilities supersede all other modes of
communication.
• Before optical communication the most of the communication
was in radio and microwave domain which has frequency
range orders of magnitude lower than the optical
Communication

How it is done ?

Carrier : Radio, Microwaves, Millimeter Waves,
Optical

Transmission Media:

There are various wired and wireless media used
for long and short distance communication.:
Cable(Twisted Pair, Coaxial cables), Free Space,
Microwave Link, satellite Communication

Optical fiber !!
Observations: transmission media
1) The first two media have a very limited bandwidth.
2) Microwave links and Satellite communication has comparable
bandwidths as in principle their mode of operation is same but the spatial
reach of satellite is far greater.
3)Before Fiber optic communication became viable, satellite communication
was the only choice for long distance communication.
4) The two modes of transmission have their own merits and limitations.
The two can in fact play a complementary role. We therefore conclude
that :
Satellite and Optical communication will co-exist due to their
complementary nature...
Advantages of Optical Fiber
•Ultra high bandwidth (THz)
•Low Transmission loss (0.2 dB/Km)
•Electrical Insulation, Low EMI & Cross talk
•Security of transmission
•Low manufacturing cost
•Small size, Low weight, low volume
•Point to Point Communication
•Ruggedness & Flexibility
•System Reliability
Q1
In which of the following optical fibers are used ?
● Nuclear Reactors
● Musical instruments
● Toys
● Communication
● Transormers
Q.2
● Which of the following is not advantage of Optical fibers over
copper wires ?
•Ultra high bandwidth (THz)
•Low Transmission loss (0.2 dB/Km)
•Long distance transmission
•Security of transmission
•High System Reliability (BER ~ 10^-6)
•less information carrying capacity
Q.3
Optical Fibers are made of -
● Silica
● Copper wire
● Silver
● Plastic
Q.4 State True or False
• Optical fibers are immune to electromagnetic interference because
optical fiber is made up of dielectric material.
• Optical Fibers have increased signal security because optical signal
is well confined within the fiber and coating around the fiber.
• Due to small size and low weight optical fibers can be used in
military applications .
• Optical fibers have wider bandwidths than copper wires so that
more information can be sent over it.
• Optical Fibers require less number of intermediate repeaters in
comparison to copper wire twisted pair of coaxial cables.
Spectrum
● The spectrum of optical fiber communication typically refers to the
range of wavelengths of light that can be used for transmitting data
through optical fibers.
● Optical fibers support multiple wavelength bands, each with its own
set of advantages and characteristics.
● The two primary wavelength bands used in optical fiber
communication are,
 Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) Spectrum
 Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) Spectrum
Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) Spectrum:

Wavelength Range: Single-mode fibers are optimized for

transmission in the longer wavelength range of light, typically
around 1260 to 1675 nanometers (nm).
Application: Single-mode fibers are commonly used for long-
distance communication, such as in telecommunications
networks, undersea cables, and high-speed internet connections.
Advantages: Single-mode fibers exhibit low signal attenuation,
providing the ability to transmit signals over significant distances
without the need for repeaters. They are also suitable for high-
speed data transmission.
Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) Spectrum:

○ Wavelength Range: Multi-mode fibers support a broader

range of wavelengths, typically in the range of 850 to 1300 nm.
○ Application: Multi-mode fibers are often used for shorter-
distance communication, such as within buildings, data centers,
and local area networks (LANs).
○ Advantages: Multi-mode fibers can accommodate multiple
light modes (paths) simultaneously. They are suitable for
applications where cost-effective, high-bandwidth solutions are
required over shorter distances.
Spectrum
● Additionally, there are specific wavelength bands within these ranges that are
commonly used for specific purposes in optical fiber communication:
● O-Band (Original Band): Around 1260 to 1360 nm. Used in both single-mode and
multi-mode fibers for various applications.
● E-Band (Extended Band): Around 1360 to 1460 nm. Commonly used in single-mode
fibers for specific applications.
● S-Band (Short Band): Around 1460 to 1530 nm. Used in single-mode fibers for
applications such as metropolitan area networks (MANs).
● C-Band (Conventional Band): Around 1530 to 1565 nm. Widely used in long-
distance communication due to low signal attenuation.
● L-Band (Long Band): Around 1565 to 1625 nm. Used for specific applications in
telecommunications networks.
● U-Band (Ultra-Band): Around 1625 to 1675 nm. Extending beyond the conventional
C-Band for specialized applications.
Spectrum
● These wavelength bands offer flexibility in designing optical
communication systems to meet specific requirements
related to distance, bandwidth, and application needs.
● Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology
further enables the simultaneous transmission of multiple
wavelengths over a single optical fiber, maximizing its
capacity.
Historical Developments Fires for
signaling

Visible optical / light
communication have been used
for many years.

Problems: Technological
limitations,
●
Limited Speed of sending
information
●
Optical signal carrier (eyes)
were error prone
●
Need of line of sight
Flashes of
transmission sunlight reflected
●
Transmission path unreliable Signaling Lamps by a mirror
due to Fog, rain, snow & dust
Observations: Attenuation profile
• Initially in early 1970s due to technology limitation, the
optical fiber had a low loss window around 800nm.
• Also the semiconductor optical sources were made of GaAs
which emitted light at 800nm.
• Due to compatibility of the medium properties and the
sources, the optical communication started in 800nm band
so called the ‘First window'.
• As the glass purification technology improved, the true silica
loss profile emerged in 1980s.
Observations: Attenuation profile
• The loss profile shows two low loss windows, one around 1300nm and
other around1550nm.
• In 1980s the optical communication shifted to 1300nm band so called the
‘Second Window'
• This window is attractive as it can support the highest data rate due to
lowest dispersion.
• In 1990s the communication was shifted to 1550nm window, so called
Third Window' due to invention of the Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA).
• The EDFA can amplify light only in a narrow band around 1550nm. Also this
window has intrinsically lowest loss of about 0.2 dB/Km.

• This band has higher dispersion, meaning lower bandwidth. However, this
problem has been solved by use of so called ‘dispersion shifted fibers'.
 Frequency Attenuation Delay Repeater
Spacing

Twisted Pair Up to 3.5 KHz 0.2dB/km 50 us/km 2 km

@1KHz

Twisted Pair Up to 1MHZ 3 dB/km 5 us/km 2 km

(Multi Pair @1KHz
Cable)

Coaxial Up to 500 MHz 7 dB/km 4 us/km 1-9 km

cable @1KHh

Optical 180-370THz 0.2 dB- 0.5 5 us/km 40 km

Fiber dB/km
Photophone in 1880

● Due to technological limitations, it could not be commercialized.

Observations : Optical Spectrum

UV & Xrays have very high energy..quantum noise
is very high.

Difficulty in getting transmission line, reflector at
such high frequency.

Visible light waves may be the last type of
electromagnetic waves that can be used for
telecommunication.
HW

Study of Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Name of the band,
- Frequency used,
- Application,
- Types of Media,
Revision !!!
● Name some optical components used in optical fiber communication link.
● Name two optical sources
● Name two optical detectors
● What is window ? Name all windows.
● Name the wavelength where attenuation and dispersion is minimum.
● Name the wavelength where attenuation is minimum but dispersion is
not.
● At 1550 nm which fiber is used ?
● What are the components present in regenerator used in optical link.
● Which optical component is used to join two optical fibers to increase the
length of Fiber ?
©RBJ VESIT
Nature of Light
Characteristics of Light

Intensity: Power per unit Solid Angle


Wavelength: Colour


Spectral Width: Purity of Colour


Polarization: Linear, Circular, Elliptical, Random
Nature of light
● Ray optics: Propagation of light rays through optical components
and systems
● Wave Optics: Propagation of light waves through optical
components and systems
● Electromagnetic Optics : Description of light by electric and
magnetic field
● Quantum Optics: emission / absorption of photons which are
described by quantum theory
Optical Fiber Structure: Dielectric Waveguide


Core:
-
Made by fused silica glass (doped), has higher index of refraction
than cladding.


Cladding:
- Reduces scattering loss resulting from dielectric discontinuities at the
core surface.
- Adds mechanical strength to the fiber
- Protects the core from absorbing surface contamination with which it
would come in contact.

Buffer/Coating:
- Protects the glass fiber
from physical damage
and moisture.

Strength Members:
- Elastic, abrasion
resistant plastic
material, adds further
strength to fiber.
- Buffers the fibers from
small geometrical
irregularities,
distortions, roughness
©RBJ VESIT
Ray optics / Geometrical optics
• When the wavelength of light is much smaller than the object,
the wavefronts appear as straight lines to this object.
• In this case the light wave can be indicated by a light ray,
which is drawn perpendicular to the phase front and parallel
to the Poynting vector, which indicates the flow of energy.
• Thus, large scale optical effects such as reflection & refraction
can be analyzed by simple geometrical process called ray
tracing. This view of optics is referred to as ray optics or
geometrical optics.
Snell’s Laws (Optical Geometry)

– Light = rays
– Light propagation → straight-line (homogeneous medium)

n 1⋅sin θ i =n 2⋅sin θ R θ i =θ r
n 1⋅ci =n 2⋅c R c i =c r
• Light = rays
• Light
propagation →
straight-line
(homogeneou
s medium)
n1 sin θ i =n 2 sin θ R n1 sin θ i =n 2 ·1 n1 sin θ i≠n2 sin θ R
θ R <90 º ⇒ sin θ R <1 n2 n2
n1 sin θ i <n 2 sinθ i = sinθ i >
n1 n1
n2
sinθ i <
n1
Ray Theory: Light ray Guiding condition
Core: carries light
Cladding: confines
light into the core
In order to propagate
light
Air/core interface:
refraction (lighting Air:
horizontally) n0 ≈ 1
Core/cladding
interface: reflection The light ray that satisfies total internal
(n1 > n2) reflection at the interface of higher refractive
index (core) and lower refractive index
(cladding) can be guided along the optical fiber.
Ex
● Under what condition light will be trapped inside the optical fiber
with
n1 = 1.44 and n2 = 1.46

q > c
c is critical angle = sin–1(n2 / n1)

c = = sin–1(1.46 / 1.44) = 80.5 0

● This definition
applies to all
light
collecting
systems,
including
optical Fibers.
The acceptance angle θa when launching light into an optical
fiber
Observations
● It may be observed that this ray enters the fiber core at an angle θa to
the fiber axis and is refracted at the air–core interface before
transmission to the core–cladding interface at the critical angle.
● Hence, any rays which are incident into the fiber core at an angle greater
than θa will be transmitted to the core–cladding interface at an angle less
than φc, and will not be totally internally reflected.
● This situation is also illustrated in Figure where the incident ray B at an
angle greater than θa is refracted into the cladding and eventually lost by
radiation.
● Thus for rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber
core they must be incident on the fiber core within acceptance cone
defined by the conical half angle θa.
Observations
● Hence θa is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the
fiber in order to be propagated, and is often referred to as the acceptance
angle for the fiber.
● θa is sometimes referred to as the maximum or total acceptance angle
● If the fiber has a regular cross-section (i.e. the core–cladding interfaces are
parallel and there are no discontinuities) an incident meridional ray at
greater than the critical angle will continue to be reflected and will be
transmitted through the fiber.
● From symmetry considerations it may be noted that the output angle to the
axis will be equal to the input angle for the ray, assuming the ray emerges
into a medium of the same refractive index from which it was input.
Quiz time
● A fibre optic telephone transmission can handle more than
thousands of voice channels.
a) True
b) False
● Explanation: Optical fibre has larger bandwidth hence it can handle
a large number of channels for communication.
Quiz time
Which of the following is not included in optical fiber communication
system ?
● Transmitter
● Optical fiber
● Receiver
● Transformer
Quiz time
What are optical fibers
● Those glowing toys
● Flexible strands of copper wire
● Flexible strands of plastics
● Thin, flexible fibers of plastic/glass
Quiz time
Which of the following statement is true ?
1. Core Refractive index is less than cladding refractive index
2. Core Refractive index is equal to cladding refractive index
3. Core Refractive index is less or equal than cladding refractive index
4. Core Refractive index is more than cladding refractive index
Quiz time
● 1. What is the principle of fibre optical communication?
a) Frequency modulation
b) Population inversion
c) Total internal reflection
d) Doppler Effect
● Explanation: In optical fibres, the light entering the fibre does not
encounter any new surfaces, but repeatedly they hit the same
surface. The reason for confining the light beam inside the fibres is
the total internal reflection.
©RBJ VESIT
Ex
Ex
Ex
● A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be
considered by ray theory analysis has a core refractive index of 1.50
and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine: (a) the critical
angle at the core–cladding interface; (b) the NA for the fiber; (c) the
acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
HW
1) If n1= 1.48, n2=1.46, Determine NA and acceptance angle.
Now remove the cladding , determine NA and acceptance angle.
Comment upon the results.
Meridional rays
● A light ray is launched in a plane containing the axis of the fiber. We
can then see the light ray after total internal reflection travels in the
same plane i.e., the ray is confined to the plane in which it was
launched and never leave the plane. In this situation the rays will
always cross the axis of the fiber. These are called the Meridional
rays.
Skew Rays
The other possibility is that the ray is not launched in a plane
containing the axis of the fiber.
For example if the ray is launched at some angle such that it does not
intersect the axis of the fiber, then after total internal reflection it
will go to some other plane.
We can see that in this situation the ray will never intersect the axis of
the fiber. The ray essentially will spiral around the axis of fiber.
These rays are called the Skew rays.
Limitations of the Ray-model

(1) The ray model gives an impression that during total internal
reflection the energy is confined to the core only. However, it is not
so. In reality the optical energy spreads in cladding also.

(2) The ray model does not speak of the discrete field patterns for
propagation inside a fiber.

(3) The ray model breaks down when the core size becomes
comparable to the wavelength of light.

(4)The ray model therefore is not quite justified for a SM fiber.

The limitations of the Ray model are overcome in the wave model.
According to wave or physical optics viewpoint,
- The EM waves radiated by a small optical source can be represented by a train of
spherical wavefronts with the source at the center.
- A wavefront is defined as the locus of all points in the wave train which exhibit the
same phase.
- Far from source wave fronts tend to be in a plane form.
Wave fronts
(constant phase surfaces) Wave fronts
Wave fronts
k

  P E
k r
P 
O

z
A perfect plane wave A perfect spherical wave A divergent beam
(a) (b) (c)

Consider a single ray
and its TIR ray..

Observe the wave fronts
for these two rays, they
intersect with each
other, either
constructive interference
or destructive
interference will take
place depending upon
their phase distribution.

Light intensity varies
from zero to maximum
observed on the cross
section of two interfaces.

This is somewhat
standing type of wave
Observations

In the other medium, intensity is not zero as seen in ray theory,
thus according to wave theory, finite intensity is observed in other
medium.

So if Light is an electromagnetic wave, it consists of E and H field,
which are finite in one medium , suddenly can not become zero in
other medium.(because of continuity of the fields)

Thus TIR says that the ray is completely reflected but it does not
say what happens in other part of the medium ?
Quiz time: True / false
● According to ray theory, intensity is zero in cladding however
according to wave theory some of the field is present is cladding.
● The ray model works when the core size becomes comparable to the
wavelength of light.
● When the wavelength of light is much smaller than the object, wave
theory is applicable.
● Meridional ray is launched in a plane containing the axis of the fiber.
● The Meridional ray will never intersect the axis of the fiber.
● The skew rays essentially will spiral around the axis of fiber.
● What is the maximum and minimum value of NA ?
● Two fibers whose NAs are 0.5 and 0.7, comment upon the fibers. ?
Wave analysis

In TIR, the fields are present in the second medium and
these fields decay exponentially, as we go away from core
cladding interface.

Essentially, we must protect these fields (In the other
medium), otherwise field in the first medium will be
disturbed to maintain boundary condition. Hence there will
be leakage of power in other medium.

That is the reason to provide Cladding !!!

In TIR : - Standing type of fields inside the core
- Decaying field in the cladding
- Sudden phase change between the two rays, this phase change
depends on angle of incidence, refractive indices of core and cladding
Modes in planar guide
● The component of the plane wave in the x direction is reflected at the
interface between the higher and lower refractive index media. When the
total phase change after two successive reflections at the upper and
lower interfaces (between the points P and Q) is equal to 2mπ radians,
where m is an integer, then constructive interference occurs and a
standing wave is obtained in the x direction.

If this phase condition is satisfied, then only light can get launched
inside the optical fiber.

So within the cone of numerical aperture, some of the light rays are there
which will not satisfy this phase condition and those rays can not
propagate inside the optical fiber.

Here for a particular angle θ, there may be many rays who are making
angle θ with the axis of optical fiber, are able to propagate through the fiber.
All these rays corresponds to one ring
Modes

m=0, θ=0, No TIR, ray propagates along the axis of fiber.

m=1, all the rays making an angle θ, satisfying the phase condition will be
able to propagate inside the fiber. These ensemble of rays are essentially a
ring, which is going to propagate inside the core.

m=2, another set of rays making another angle θ satisfying the phase
condition would be able to propagate in the fiber and so on..

The collection of this ensemble of rays gives interference pattern inside the
core. This results in a definite unique intensity pattern inside the fiber. Thus
there are discrete no. of intensity patterns inside the core of the optical fiber
corresponding to different values of m. These unique intensity patterns are
called modes.

As the angle increases, order of mode increases. Modes are finite in numbers.
● The order of the mode is equal to
the # of field zeros across the
guide.

● The order of the mode is also

related to the angle in which the
ray congruence θ corresponding
to this mode makes with the
plane of the waveguide (or axis
of the fiber).

● The steeper the angle, the higher

the order of the mode. For higher
order modes the fields are
distributed more toward the
edges of the guide and penetrate
further into the cladding region.
Radiation modes

Modes in fibers are not trapped in the core & guided

by the fiber but they are still solutions of the
Maxwell’ eqs. with the same boundary conditions.
These infinite continuum of the modes results from
the optical power that is outside the fiber
acceptance angle being refracted out of the core.
Leaky Modes
● In addition to bound & refracted (radiation) modes, there are
leaky modes in optical fiber.
● They are partially confined to the core & attenuated by
continuously radiating this power out of the core as they
traverse along the fiber (results from Tunneling effect which
is quantum mechanical phenomenon.)
Summary

Higher is the NA, higher is the light gathering capability of
fiber or light launching efficiency.

With the mode concept, light launching efficiency is further
restricted.

Variation in the intensity pattern is due to constructive and
destructive interference. Thus Ray is a transpose electromagnetic
wave.

Various types of intensity patterns, due to different value of
m and hence θ.

Thus Ray is a transpose electromagnetic wave.(TEm & TMm)
Quiz time : state True / False
● Glass fibers have more Numerical aperture than plastic fibers.
● With Ray theory light launching efficiency is more than wave
theory.
● Wave theory limits light launching efficiency .
● Light launching efficiency is also known as…..
● Radiation modes are refracted modes while leaky modes are
guided modes in core.
● Which modes are guided modes : Radiation & Leaky ?
● For higher order modes the fields are distributed more in the
core of the optical fiber waveguide
Fiber Types

Depending on Core- Cladding Diameter
- Single Mode Fiber
- Multi Mode Fiber

Depending on Core- Cladding Refractive Index profile
- Step Index Fiber
- Graded Index fiber

Depending on the Material types
- Plastic Fiber
- Glass Fiber
Fibers based on Material

Material should exhibit following characteristic:
- low scattering loss
- low absorption, attenuation and dispersion
- Efficient Guide for light
- Plastic Fiber
- Glass Fibers
Plastic Fibers

Made of Plastic

Low cost

Exhibit more attenuation than glass fibers

Easy to handle because of toughness and flexibility

Large Numerical Aperture ?

Large angle of acceptance ?
Examples:
A polymethyl methacrylate core (n1 = 1.59) and a cladding
made of its co-polymer (n2 = 1.40).
A polysterene core (n1 = 1.60) and a methylmetha crylate
cladding (n = 1.49).
Glass Fibers
•The glass fibers are generally fabricated by fusing mixtures of metal oxides and
silica glasses.
•Silica has a refractive index of 1.458 at 850 nm.
•To produce two similar materials having slightly different indices of refraction for
the core and cladding, either fluorine or various oxides such as B2O3, GeO2 or
P2O3 are added to silica.
•Examples:
•SiO2 core; P2­O3 – SiO2 cladding
•GeO2 – SiO2 core; SiO2 cladding
•P2O5 – SiO2 core; SiO2 cladding
Core Diameter(2a) : 8 -12um 50-
200um
Relative Index difference (Δ) : 0.2 -1 % 1-3 %
Single mode fibers
•In a fiber, if only one mode is transmitted through it, then it is said to
be a single mode fiber.
•A typical single mode fiber may have a core diameter of 8 -12μm and a
numerical aperture of 0.1 at a wavelength of 0.8 μm.
•The condition for the single mode operation is given by the V number of
the fiber such that V ≤ 2.405 , which is defined as,
2πn 1 a ( √2Δ )
V=
λ
•Here, n1 = refractive index of the core; a = Radius of the core; λ = Wavelength
of the light propagating through the fiber; Δ = Relative refractive indices
difference.
Characteristics of Single Mode Fiber

• Only one path (one mode) is available.

• V-number is less than 2.405.
• Core diameter (a = 8 -12μm) is small.
• No dispersion.
• Higher band width (3000 MHz)
• Used for long haul communication
• Fabrication is difficult and costly
• Optical source : Laser Diode (Coherent source)
Multi mode fibers
• If more than one mode is transmitted through optical fiber, then it is
said to be a multimode fiber.
• The larger core radii of multimode fibers make it easier to launch
optical power into the fiber and facilitate the end to end connection of
similar powers.
•
Characteristics of Multi Mode Fiber
• More than one path(mode) is available
• V-number is greater than 2.405
• Core diameter (50-200um) is higher
• Higher dispersion
• Lower bandwidth (50MHz)
• Used for short distance communication
• Fabrication is less difficult and not costly
• Easy coupling
• Optical Source : LED, Incoherent source
Optical fibers based on Refractive Index profile
Step index fiber
•In a step index fiber, the refractive index changes in a step fashion, from
the centre of the fiber (the core) to the outer shell, (the cladding).
•It is high in the core and lower in the cladding (n2 > n1).
•The light in the fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from core-
cladding interface following TIR..
•The step index fibers propagate both single and multimode signals within
the fiber core.
•The light rays propagating through it are in the form of meridinal rays
which will cross the fiber core axis during every reflection at the core –
cladding boundary and are propagating in a zig – zag manner.
Step Index Single mode & Multi mode Fiber

With reference to the

radial distance (r)
from the fiber axis
is given as:
when
r = 0, n(r) = n1
r < a, n(r) = n1
r ≥ a, n(r) = n2
Step index Single mode Fiber
• The light energy in a single-mode fiber is concentrated in one mode
only.
• This is accomplished by reducing  and or the core diameter to a point
where the V is less than 2.4.
• In other words, the fiber is designed to have a V number between 0 and
2.4.
•This relatively small value means that the fiber radius and , the relative
refractive index difference, must be small.
•No intermodal dispersion exists in single mode fibers because only one
mode exists.
Step index Single mode Fiber contd

• With careful choice of material, dimensions and , the total

dispersion can be made extremely small, less than 0.1 ps /(kmnm),
making this fiber suitable for use with high data rates.
• In a single-mode fiber, a part of the light propagates in the cladding.
• The cladding is thick and has low loss.
• Typically, for a core diameter of 10 m, the cladding diameter is
about 120  m.
• Handling and manufacturing of single mode step index fiber is more
difficult.
Quiz time: State true/ false
● Fiber allowing only one mode has diameter 20 um.
● BY changing refractive indices of core and cladding no. of
propagating modes can be changed.
● In step index fiber, refractive index is maximum at the
centre and gradually decreases towards core cladding
interface.
● Graded index fiber can be single mode fiber.
● LED can not be used with multimode fiber.
● Laser diode is used with single mode fiber.
The Future
is exciting…
Ready ??
The best is yet to come..
©RBJ VESIT
Step index Multimode fibers
● In such fibers light propagates in many modes.
●The total number of modes increase with increase in the numerical
aperture.
For a larger number of modes, can be approximated by,

[ ]
2
2 dn 1 √2Δ 1
V
M N = =4 .9
2 λ
V=
( )
2πa
λ
×N .A =
( )
2πa
λ
×n1 ×( 2Δ ) 2

where d = diameter of the core of the fiber

V = V – number or normalized frequency, is a relation among
the fiber size, the refractive indices and the wavelength.
Step index Multimode fibers
● To reduce the dispersion, the NA should not be decreased beyond a
limit for the following reasons:
● First, injecting light into fiber with low N.A becomes difficult. Lower NA
means lower acceptance angle, which requires the entering light to have
a very shallow angle.
●Second, leakage of energy is more likely, and hence losses increase.
●The core diameter of the typical multimode fiber varies between 50 μm
and about 200 μm, with cladding thickness typically equal to the core
radius.
Graded index fibers : Refractive index profile
Graded index fibers
• The refractive index n in the core varies as we move away
from the centre.
• The refractive index of the core is made to vary in the form of
parabolic manner such that the maximum refractive index is
present at the centre of the core.
• The refractive index (n) profile with reference to the radial
distance (r) from the fiber axis is given as: when

[ ( [ ] )]
r = 0, n(r) = n1 2
1
r 2
n1 1− 2Δ
a
r < a, n(r) = 1
2
n 1 ( 1− 2Δ )
r ≥ a, n(r) = n2 =
 [( [ ] )]
1
● Let na, nb,nc ,nd etc be the refractive index of 2
r 2
different layers in graded index fiber with n1 1− 2Δ
na > nb> nc> nd etc. then the propagation of a
light through the graded index fiber is as
shown in the figure.

● Here, since na > nb the ray gets refracted.

Similarly since nb> nc, the ray gets refracted
and so on. In a similar manner, due to
decrease in refractive index the ray gets
gradually curved towards the upward
direction and at one place , where in it
satisfies the condition for total internal
reflection,(ϕ > ϕc ) it is totally internally
reflected .

● The reflected rays travels back towards the

core axis and without crossing the fiber axis,
it is refracted towards downwards direction
and again gets totally internally reflected
and passes towards upward direction. In this
manner the ray propagates inside the fiber
in helical manner.
Graded index fibers
•The light rays will be propagated in the form skew rays (or) helical rays
which will not cross the fiber axis at any time and are propagating
around the fiber axis in a helical or spiral manner.
•The effective acceptance angle of the graded-index fiber is somewhat
less than that of an equivalent step-index fiber. This makes coupling
fiber to the light source more difficult.
•The number of modes in a graded-index fiber is about half that in a
similar step-index fiber,
Graded index fibers contd…

•The lower the number of modes in the graded-index fiber

results in lower dispersion than is found in the step-index fiber.
•The size of the graded-index fiber is about the same as the
step-index fiber.
•The manufacture of graded-index fiber is more complex. It is
more difficult to control the refractive index well enough to
produce accurately the variations needed for the desired index
profile.
V Number
● The normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter and hence
is also sometimes simply called the V number or value of the fiber.
● It combines in a very useful manner the information about three
important design variables for the fiber: namely,
 the core radius a,
 the relative refractive index difference Δ and
 the operating wavelength λ.
Cut of wavelength
● It may be noted by rearrangement of Eq. of V number, that single-
mode operation only occurs above a theoretical cutoff wavelength
λc given by,

● where Vc is the cutoff normalized frequency. Hence λc is the

wavelength above which a particular fiber becomes single-moded.
● Thus for step index fiber where Vc = 2.405, the cutoff wavelength is
given by,
Mode-field diameter
● The MFD is an important parameter for
characterizing single-mode fiber
properties which takes into account the
wavelength-dependent field penetration
into the fiber cladding.
● For step index and graded (near parabolic
profile) single-mode fibers operating near
the cutoff wavelength λc, the field is well
approximated by a Gaussian distribution.
● In this case the MFD is generally taken as
the distance between the opposite 1/e =
0.37 field amplitude points and the power
1/e2 = 0.135 points in relation to the
corresponding values on the fiber axis.
Spot size
● Another parameter which is directly
related to the MFD of a single-mode
fiber is the spot size (or mode-field
radius) ω0.
● Hence MFD = 2ω0, where ω0 is the
nominal half width of the input
excitation.
● The MFD can therefore be regarded as
the single mode analog of the fiber
core diameter in multimode fibers.
● However, for many refractive index
profiles and at typical operating
wavelengths the MFD is slightly larger
than the single-mode fiber core
HW
● Calculate the V – number and number of modes propagating through the fiber
having a = 50 μm, n1 = 1. 53, n2 = 1.50 and λ = 1μm
Ans. : V – number = 94.72 ; No. of modes = 4486

● Find the core radius necessary for single mode operation at 850 nm of step
index fiber with n1 = 1.480 and n2 = 1.465.
Ans. a = core radius = 1.554 μm

● Determine the cutoff wavelength for a step index fiber to exhibit single-mode
operation when the core refractive index and radius are 1.46 and 4.5 μm,
respectively, with the relative index difference being 0.25%.
● Ans : 1214 nm
Plane wave Velocity & Modal wave phase velocity:

• For a plane wave propagating along z-axis in an unbounded

homogeneous region of refractive index n1, which is
represented by exp (jwt-jk1z ) , the velocity of constant
phase plane is: v= w/k1= c/n1
• For a modal wave propagating along z-axis represented by
exp (jwt-jβz ), the velocity of constant phase plane is:

ω
v p=
β
Group Velocity

It is impossible to produce perfectly monochromatic light wave, and
light energy is composed of a sum of plane wave components of
different frequencies.

A group of waves with closely similar frequencies propagate, so that
their resultant forms a packet of waves.

This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the
individual waves but move at a group velocity.
dω
V g=
dβ
Optical Fiber Connection

Joints: It is defined as the point where two fibers are jointed together
to allow a light signal to propagate from one fiber to another, with
minimum loss as possible.

Why Joints:
- Fibers and cables are not endless, To extend the length.
- For joining distribution cables and splitters with backbone.
- At transmit and Receive terminals
- Cable cuts & their restoration
-
Characteristics of Joints:

Mechanical strong

Optically sound

Low loss

Transmit as much power as possible with less back reflection
Types of Fiber Joints

Permanent or fixed type:
- Fiber Splices
- used in OFC system


Demountable / simple/Terminating / Non fixed:
- Fiber Connectors
- removable joint
- allows easy, fast manual coupling and decoupling of
fibers
Quiz time : state true / false
● Splice is a removable joint used in OFC system, allows easy, fast
manual coupling and decoupling of fibers
● Fiber Connectors are permanent joint.
● Joints should be Mechanical strong, Optically sound, have Low loss
and transmit as much power as possible with less back reflection.
● The number of modes in a graded-index fiber is about half that in a
similar step-index fiber.
● The manufacture of graded-index fiber is more complex because It is
more difficult to control the refractive index well enough to produce
accurately the variations needed for the desired index profile.
Losses in Connection

Attenuation: Optical loss
1) Intrinsic losses : These losses are due to engineering design
and manufacturing flaws in the fiber.
- Core Eccentricity: exact centre of core and cladding are
not same
- Core Ellipticity: Departure from circular
- NA mismatch
- Core diameter mismatch
- Refractive index mismatch
Intrinsic Losses
Losses in connection
2) Extrinsic losses: These losses are caused by the
mechanics of the joint itself.
- Misalignment Losses
longitudinal: End gap
lateral
Angular
Fiber ends
- Bad cleaves and poor polishing
- Air spaces
- Contamination caused by dirt, wiping tissues or air
borne dust particles
Extrinsic losses
Angular longitudinal
misalignment loss misalignment
loss
 Lateral
misalignment
loss
Optical Return Loss (Fresnel Reflection)

Due to step change in refractive index profile at jointed surface
(glass/air/glass), light may be reflected back into the transmitting
fiber causes attenuation at the joint.

Use of index matching fluid in the gap between jointed fibers. The
fluid has same refractive index as that of core.
Fiber Splices
Splicer
Mechanical device for joining two pieces of paper or film or
magnetic tape
Splice
joint made by overlapping two ends and joining them
Splicing
Process of the permanent connection of two pieces of Optical
Fibers
Fiber Splices
Types:
● Fusion splicing
● Mechanical splicing
End preparation :
● Striping (Cable jacket, buffer tube & coating)
● Cleaving
● Cleaning the end surface
Fiber Splices
Fusion Splicing
●Fiber end preparations
●Fiber is kept in a grooved fiber holder and alignment is done by
observing under microscopic with micro-positioner.
●Fusing the two fibers with an electric arc or laser pulse at 2000 c, so
that the fibers ends are momentarily melted & hence bonded together.
●Flame heating sources
● micro-plasma burners, oxy-hydric micro-burners, electric arc..
Fusion Splicing
Advantages:
- Very low splice loss
- Consistent and easily controlled heat with adaptability
- Greater physical strength than mechanical splices / connectors
- less expensive than connector
Disadvantages:
- It must be performed in controlled environment, not in open spaces because of
dust and contaminants, bubbles are formed and gasified in the splices.
- Application of heat required for fusion may weaken the fiber in the vicinity of
splice.
- Residual stress near the joint results in change of chemical composition arising
from material melting can produce a weak splice.
Mechanical Splicing
- Quick and Easy method
- Does not require a controlled environment except dust control
- Strength is always better than most connectors
- Bonding two fibers together in an alignment structure
- Transparent adhesive (epoxy resin) is used
- Commonly used Grooves: V & Elastic tube
V groove optical Fiber splicing
Comparison
Mechanical Fusion splicing
splicing
Reflection losses (-45 dB to -55 dB) No reflection
losses
Insertion loss 0.2 dB 0.1 dB-0.15 dB
Cost High Comaratively less
Strength Greater Better than
connector
Choosing a type of splicing

Type of Fiber: SMF: Fusion
MMF: Mechanical

Attenuation : Fusion

Durability : Fusion

Ease of installation: Fusion, Fully automated expensive but
one button process.
Connectors
Requirements
- Low loss
- Repeatability
- Ling life
- High Strength
- Compatibility with the environment
- Ease of use and assembly
- Interchangeability
Types
- Butt Jointed
- Expanded Beam Connector
Butt Jointed Connectors
- These connectors rely upon alignment of the two prepared fiber
ends in close proximity(butted) to each other so that fiber core
axis coincide.
- These designs include straight sleeve, Tapered sleeve, and overlap
sleeve connectors.
- It consists of a Ferrule for each fiber and a precision sleeve into
which the ferrules fit.
- The two fibers are permanently bonded with epoxy resin in ferrule.
Expanded Beam Type Connectors
- It employs lenses on the ends of the fibers.
- These lenses either collimate the light from transmitting fiber
or focus the expanded beam onto the core of the receiving filter.
- Fiber to lens distance = focal length of lens.
Advantages:
- Connector is less dependent on lateral alignments.
- Beam splitters and switches can be easily inserted into
expanded beam between fiber ends.
 [( [ ] )]
1
2
r 2
n1 1− 2Δ
a Ray Tracing
©RBJ VESIT