Lab Manual

Logic Programming
• Prolog is the only successful example of the family
of logic programming languages
• A Prolog program is a theory written in a subset of
first-order logic, called Horn clause logic
• Prolog is declarative.
• A Prolog programmer concentrates on what the
program needs to do, not on how to do it
• It will look and reason, using available facts and
rules, and then tells us an answer (or answers).
• The other major language for Artificial Intelligence
programming is LISP, which is a functional (or
applicative) language.
 Basic idea of Prolog
• Programming with Logic
• Declarative
• Very different from other (procedural) programming
languages
• Good for knowledge-rich tasks
Procedre in logic programming
• Describe the situation of interest
• Ask a question
• Prolog logically deduces new facts about the situation
we described
• Prolog gives us its deductions back as answers
 Consequences
• Think declaratively, not procedurally
– Challenging
– Requires a different mindset
• High-level language
– Not as efficient as, say, C
– Good for rapid prototyping
– Useful in many AI applications
 SWI Prolog
• Freely available Prolog interpreter
• Works with
– Linux,
– Windows, or
– Mac OS
• There are many more Prolog interpreters
• Not all are ISO compliant
Defining Relations by Facts
• In Prolog, we write fact in the form
– predicate(atom1,….)
– Predicate is a name that we give to a relation
– An atom is a constant value, usually written in lower
case
E.g. parent( tom,bob).
• parent( pam, bob). parent( tom,bob). parent( tom,liz).
parent( bob, ann). parent( bob,pat). parent( pat,jim).
• A relation is a collection of facts. parent is the name of
a relation.
• A relation of arity n is a function from n-tuples
(elements of a Cartesian product) to {true, false}. (It
can also be considered a subset of the n-tuples.)
Defining Relations by Rules
• The offspring relation:
For all X and Y,
Y is an offspring of X if
X is a parent of Y
• This relation is defined by a rule, corresponding
to the Prolog clause
offspring( Y,X) :- parent( X,Y).
• Alternative reading:
For all X and Y,
if X is a parent of Y,
then Y is an offspring of X
 Rules
• Rules are clauses.
• Facts are clauses
• A rule has a condition and a conclusion
• The conclusion of a Prolog rule is its head
• The condition of a Prolog rule is its body
• If the condition of a rule is true, then it follows
that its conclusion is true also
• Rule is in the form
– predicate(Var1,…):- predicate1(…),
predicate2(…), …
– Where Var1 is a variable, usually begins
with upper case
– Yes, it’s just a rewriting of
• HB1,B2,…Bn
– Fact is a rule that does not have the right
hand side.
How Prolog Rules are Used
• Prolog rules may be used to define relations
• The offspring relation is defined by the rule
offspring( Y,X) :- parent( X,Y):
– if (X,Y) is in the parent relation, then (Y,X) is
in the offspring relation
• When a goal of the form offspring( Y,X) is set
up, the goal succeeds if parent( X,Y) succeeds
• Procedurally, when a goal matches the head of a
rule, Prolog sets up its body as a new goal
 Example

?-offspring(liz,tom).
• No fact matches this query
• The head of the clause
offspring( Y,X) :- parent( X,Y) does
• Y is replaced with liz, X is replaced with tom
• The instantiated body parent( tom,liz) is set up as
a new goal
• ?-parent( tom,liz) succeeds
• offspring( liz,tom) therefore succeeds too
 More Family Relations
• female and male are defined extensionally,
i.e., by facts; mother and grandparent are
defined intensionally, I.e., by rules
• female(pam). … male(jim).
• mother( X,Y) :- parent( X,Y), female( X).
• grandparent( X,Z) :- parent( X,Y),
parent( Y,Z).
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
no
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
ERROR: predicate tattoed/1 not defined.
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
 Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia). rule
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda). fact
listens2music(mia). fact
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia). rule
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda). rule
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

head body
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?-
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
yes
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
yes
 Clauses
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are five clauses in this knowledge base:

two facts, and three rules.
The end of a clause is marked with a full stop.
 Predicates
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are three predicates

in this knowledge base:
happy, listens2music, and playsAirGuitar
 Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).
 Expressing Conjunction
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

The comma “," expresses conjunction in Prolog

 Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(vincent).
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(butch).
yes
?-
Expressing Disjunction

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch); listens2music(butch).
Prolog and Logic
• Clearly Prolog has something to do with
logic
• Operators
– Implication :-
– Conjunction ,
– Disjunction ;
• Use of modus ponens
• Negation
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).
Prolog Variables
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
Variable Instantiation
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia
Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
Asking Alternatives (;)
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody
Asking Alternatives(;)
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda
 Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda;
no
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
X=mia
yes
?-
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
 Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
no
?-
 Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

 Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

?- jealous(marsellus,W).
 Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

?- jealous(marsellus,W).
W=vincent
?-
 Prolog Syntax
• What exactly are facts, rules and queries built
out of?
Terms
Terms

Simple
Simple Terms
Terms Complex
Complex Terms
Terms

Constants
Constants Variables
Variables

Atoms
Atoms Numbers
Numbers
 Atoms
• A sequence of characters of upper-case letters, lower-
case letters, digits, or underscore, starting with a
lowercase letter
• Examples: butch, big_kahuna_burger, playGuitar

• An arbitrary sequence of characters enclosed in

single quotes
• Examples: 'Vincent', 'Five dollar shake', '@$%'

• A sequence of special characters

• Examples: : , ; . :-
 Numbers
• Integers: 12, -34, 22342
• Floats: 34573.3234

Variables
A sequence of characters of upper-case
letters, lower-case letters, digits, or
underscore, starting with either an uppercase
letter or an underscore
Examples:
X, Y, Variable, Vincent, _tag
 Complex Terms
• Atoms, numbers and variables are building
blocks for complex terms
• Complex terms are built out of a functor
directly followed by a sequence of
arguments
• Arguments are put in round brackets,
separated by commas
• The functor must be an atom
 Examples of complex terms
• Examples we have seen before:
– playsAirGuitar(jody)
– loves(vincent, mia)
– jealous(marsellus, W)

• Complex terms inside complex terms:

– hide(X,father(father(father(butch))))
 Arity
• The number of arguments a complex term has is
called its arity

• Examples:

woman(mia) is a term with arity 1

loves(vincent,mia) has arity 2
father(father(butch)) arity 1
 Arity is important
• In Prolog you can define two predicates
with the same functor but with different
arity
• Prolog would treat this as two different
predicates
• In Prolog documentation arity of a
predicate is usually indicated with the
suffix "/" followed by a number to indicate
the arity
 Example of Arity
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

• This knowledge base defines

– happy/1
– listens2music/1
– playsAirGuitar/1
 Summary of this lecture
• Simple examples of Prolog programs
• Introduced three basic constructs in Prolog:
– Facts
– Rules
– Queries
• Discussed other concepts, such as
– the role of logic
– unification with the help of variables
• Definition of Prolog constructs:
terms, atoms, and variables