FORMULATION AND

PRESENTATION OF DATA
 CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW

• Classification of Organization of Data

• Presentation and Interpretation of Data

• Measures of Central Tendency

• Measures of Dispersion

• Symmetric and Asymmetric Distributions

Reference: Learn with Mayora. (2022, January 21). Data collection and presentation | Statistics [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6N2OA34zNEw
 CLASSIFICATION AND
ORGANIZATION OF DATA
 DATA
• individual pieces of factual information recorded and
used for the purpose of analysis.
• It is the raw information from which statistics are
created.

RAW DATA
- data collected in an investigation and they are not
organized systematically

GROUP DATA
- raw data that are presented in the form of a
frequency distribution.
 THE PURPOSES OF DATA
GATHERING

• characterization (e.g., describing weaknesses and

strengths),
• assessment (e.g., evaluating program effectiveness),
• evaluation (e.g., examining the quality of the
educational process or learner outcomes),
• control,
• prediction, and
• improvement.
 METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

1. Direct or Interview Method - a person-to-person interaction between

an interviewer and an interviewee
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method - Written responses are obtained
by distributing questionnaires to the respondents
3. Registration Method - enforced by private organizations or
government agencies for recording purposes.
4. Observation Method - used when the objective is to determine the
cause-and-effect of a certain phenomenon under some controlled
conditions
5. Experimentation - a scientific method of investigation that makes
possible use of all senses to measure or obtain outcomes
 𝐂𝐋𝐀𝐒𝐒𝐈𝐅𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍𝐒𝐎𝐅 𝐕𝐀𝐑𝐈𝐀𝐁𝐋𝐄𝐒 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐃𝐀𝐓𝐀
Variables that
A variable
are not is
any
measurement Variables
characterist
variables. whose values
ics,
Theirnumber,
values result from
or
do quantity
not result counting or
that
from can be measuring
measured
measuring or something
or counted.
counting
A variable
may also be
called a data
item.
DISCRETE QUANTITATIVE DATA CONTINUOUS QUANTITATIVE DATA

• can only take specific numeric • take any value in an

values interval
• number of needle • body mass, height, blood
punctures, number of pressure and cholesterol
pregnancies and number of • Age, height
• hospitalizations
Countable data
A student may be 1.6321748755
… metres
AGE: tall10 months, 23 days, …
22 years,
hours…minutes
A student may be
1.63 metres tall
AGE: 22
years
AGE: 274
months
Primary sources
provide raw
information and first-
hand evidence.
Examples include
interview transcripts,
statistical data, and
works of art. A
primary source gives
you direct access to
the subject of your
research.
Nominal • classifies qualitative data into two or more
Variables categories
• the lowest level of measurement
• describes a name, label or category without
• natural ordergender, race, hair color etc
Ex: country,

• Ranks, orders, scales

Ordinal
• First, Second, Third…
Variables
• Very satisfied, Satisfied, Indifferent, Dissatisfied, Very
Dissatisfied
Interval • measured along a scale, in which each point is placed at equal
Variables distance from one another.
• Interval data always appears in the form of numbers or numerical
values where the distance between the two points is standardized
• and equal and
temperature (inthere is no
Celsius ortrue zero
Fahrenheit), mark grading, IQ
test and CGPA.
• Has a true meaningful zero
Ratio
• has all the properties of an
Variables
interval variable, and also has a
• clear definition
the highest level ofof
0.0
measurement
• Temperature (Kelvin), weight
POPULATION AND SAMPLE

• Population
- is a finite or infinite collection of objects, events,
or individuals with specified class or characteristics
under consideration.
- A capital letter “N” is used to denote population
size.

• Sample
- is a finite or limited collection of objects, events
or individuals selected from a population.
- A small letter “n” denotes sample size.
THE CHART SHOWS THE FOLLOWING SYMBOLS
THAT DENOTE SOME STATISTICAL TOOLS TO
AVOID CONFUSION IN THEIR USAGE.
Parameter Statistics
(Population) (Sample)
Size N n
Mean μ
Standard
s
Deviation
Variance 2
s2
Correlation
r
coefficient
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

A. Random Sampling B. Non – Random Sampling

• Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling • Judgement or Purposive
Sampling
• Sampling with the use of Tables of
Random Numbers • Quota Sampling
• Systematic Sampling • Cluster Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling • Incident Sampling
• Simple Stratified Random • Convenience Sampling
Sampling
• Stratified Proportional Random
Sampling
• Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling
 RANDOM SAMPLING

A. Random Sampling - most commonly used sampling

technique in which each member in
the population is given an equal
chance of being selected in the
a. Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling
sample
- writing the names or numbers of all the members
of the population in small rolled pieces of paper which are
later placed in a container
b. Sampling with the use of Tables of Random
Numbers
- the use of Table of Random Numbers which
contains rows and columns of digits randomly ordered by
a computer
 RANDOM SAMPLING

c. Systematic Sampling
- done by taking every kth element in the
population. It applies to a group of individuals arranged in
a waiting line or in methodical manner.
d. Stratified Random Sampling
- when the population can be partitioned into
several strata or subgroups.
- Random samples will be selected from each
stratum.
e. Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling
- This technique uses several stages or phrases in
getting the sample from the population.
- However, selection of the sample is still done at
 NON- RANDOM SAMPLING

NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
- method of collecting a small portion of the population by
which not all the members in the population are given the chance to
be included in the sample.

a. Judgement or Purposive Sampling

- A purposive sample is a non-probability sample that is
selected based on characteristics of a population and the objective of
the study.

b. Quota Sampling
- relatively quick and inexpensive method since the choice of the
number of persons or elements to be included in a sample is done at the
researcher’s own convenience
 NON- RANDOM SAMPLING

c. Cluster Sampling
- referred to as area sampling because it is usually applied
on a geographical basis
- The population is grouped into cluster or small units, e.g.,
blocks or districts, in the city or municipality

d. Incident Sampling
- applied to those samples which are taken because they are
the most available
e. Convenience Sampling
- involves the sample being drawn from that part of the
population that is close to hand. This type of
sampling is most useful for pilot testing
 PRESENTATION AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
 FORMS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA

A. Textual
- this form of presentation combines text and numerical facts in a
statistical report.
B. Tabular
- this form of presentation is better than textual form because it provides
numerical facts in a more concise and systematic manner. Statistical tables
are constructed to facilitate the analysis of relationship.

C. Graphical Presentation

- this form is the most effective means of organizing and

presenting statistical data because the important
relationship are brought out more clearly and creatively in
virtually solid and colorful figure
 PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
OF DATA

A frequency distribution table is an arrangement of raw data

into class intervals and frequency.
Table 1 Table 2
EDUCATIONAL FREQUENCY NUMBER OF HOURS FREQUENCY
SPENT STUDYING
ATTAINMENT
Undergraduate 5 0.5 – 1.0 4

Bachelor’s 20 1.5 – 2.0 8

Degree
2.5 – 3.0 5
Master’s Degree 15
3.5 – 4.0 3
Doctorate 10
Degree
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40
students. Make frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.
58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

1. Determine the lowest and highest values and calculate for the range.
The range is the difference between the lowest and highest values.
Range = highest value – lowest value
Range = 90 – 55
Range = 35
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40
students. Make frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.
58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

2. Calculate the class width by getting the ratio of the range and the
number of class intervals. Round-up the obtained value.
Class Width =
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40
students. Make frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.
58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

3. Start the frequency distribution table with the lowest value and add
the class width repeatedly to obtain the lowest limits of the class
intervals. CLASS INTERVALS FREQUENCY

55 –
62 –
69 –
76 –
83 –
90 –
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40
students. Make frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.
58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

4. Since class intervals cannot overlap, obtain the upper limits of each
class intervals
CLASS INTERVALS FREQUENCY

55 – 61
62 – 68
69 – 75
76 – 82
83 – 89
90 – 96
EXAMPLE:
Data below are the minutes spent answering a 60-item exam by 40
students. Make frequency distribution table with 6 class intervals.
58 55 70 57 87 69 67 55 89 78
76 88 82 80 79 66 77 77 88 83
90 88 76 79 84 85 60 65 89 77
75 70 80 80 84 85 66 64 60 62

5. Count how many of the values fall within each of the class intervals
CLASS INTERVALS FREQUENCY

55 – 61 6
62 – 68 6
69 – 75 4
76 – 82 12
83 – 89 11
90 – 96 1
 FORMS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA

𝐓𝐄𝐗𝐓𝐔𝐀𝐋

𝐓𝐀𝐁𝐔𝐋𝐀𝐑

𝐆𝐑𝐀𝐏𝐇𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐋
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Bar Graph
- consists of bars or rectangles of equal widths, either drawn vertically or
horizontally, segmented or non-segmented
- done by drawing rectangles with length proportional to the frequencies of
observed items or magnitude of classes under study
- Two or more kinds of information can be compared by showing them in multiple
bar graphs, each of which is shaded with different colors to give distinctions of each.
- describing frequency is the main objective of bar graphs.
40
35
35
30
25
20
20
15
10
5
0

Male Female
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS
• Circle Graph or Pie Graph
- represents relationships of the different components of a single total as revealed
in the sectors of a circle
- The angles of size of the sectors should be proportional to the percentage
components of the data which give a total of 100%. Colors, legends, and cross hatching
will be useful in identifying each component.
MOST VISITED
RELATIVE
PLACES IN
ILOCOS NORTE
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY Most Visited
Windmill Farm 11 Places in Ilocos
Norte
Pagudpud 29 Windmill
Beach Farm
Sand Dunes 34 Pagudpud
10% 11% Beach
Paoay Church 16 16 29
Sand Dunes
% % Paoay
Church
Cape Bojeador 10 34%
Cape Bo-
jeador
Total 100 100%
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS
• Histogram
- a graph that consist of vertical, rectangular bars which represent the frequency of
ranges of values.
- the rectangular bars have no gaps between them.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Line Graph
- it shows relationships between two sets of quantities
- This is done by plotting point of X set of quantities along the horizontal axis
against the Y set of quantities along the vertical axis in a Cartesian coordinate plane.
- Those plotted points will be connected by a line segment which finally forms the
line graph.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Picture Graph or Pictograph

- visual presentation of statistical quantities by means of drawing pictures or
symbols related to the subject under study
- Legends are sometimes used to represent magnitude of a single unit of
the picture then repetitions of this picture are drawn to indicate differences in
quantity
DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Map Graph or Cartogram

- one of the best ways to
present geographical data
- This kind of graph is
always accompanied by a legend
which tells us the meaning of the
lines, colors, or the symbols used
and positioned in a map.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Scatter Point Diagram

- graphical device to show the relationship between two quantitative
variables
- the plotted points for every pair of X and Y set of quantities are not
connected by line segments but are simply scattered on the Cartesian coordinate
plane.
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Stem-and-Leaf Plot
- another visual representation of quantitative data
- data is divided into two parts: “stem” and “leaf”.
- the stem is the first digit or digits while the leaf is the last digit of a value
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF GRAPHS / CHARTS

• Box-and-Whisker Plot
- a graphical representation of quantitative data.
- it contains the minimum, median, maximum, lower quartile, and
upper quartile.
- these values are known as the five-number summary.
- best used when data has extreme values.