Chapter No -2

Geometric design of
highways
Sub Teacher –
Mr .Torase R.R.
 Geometric Design

• The phase of highways design which

deals with the visible elements of
different highways such as alignment
,sight distance etc is called as
geometrical design of highways.
 Object of Geometrical Design
• The alignment should be economical .
• The gradient must be easy and suitable.
• On straight road provide adequate chamber.
• Curve provide should be smooth and easy at the same time
sufficient sight distance must be available in curve .
• Keep each and every record of field book.
• Proper road signals must be provided .
• At the same time keep the view the estimated cost of the project .
 Important Highway Terms

• Right of ways
• Road margin
• Road way width
• Carriage ways
• Shoulder
• Side slopes
• Berms
• Spoil Bank
• Borrow Pits
• Kerbs
• Formation level
 2.1 Camber
• Definition – The given to the center of carriage way
above its edges on straight portion of a road is called as
camber or cross slope.
• Purpose –
• 1) To drain off rain water from the road surface as quickly
as possible to prevent the entry of the surface water in to
the subgrade soil.
• 2) To regulate the vehicles to the proper lanes.
• 3) To improve the architectural appearance of the road
way.
 Types of camber

• 1) Composite camber
• 2) Sloped or straight camber
• 3) Two straight line camber.
• 4) barrel camber.
 1) Composite Camber
• Composite camber might be composed of partly parabola
and partly straight line or two straight lines having
different slopes.
• Generally, the central part of the road is made parabolic
and provided with straight slopes near edges. This helps
to decrease in intensity of pressure by increasing the
contact area of the wheel
 2) Sloped or Straight Camber
• This type of camber is provided by meeting two
straight surfaces in the crown. Crown is the
central and top most point in the surface of the
road.
• The edge shape produces inconvenience to the
traffic, so it isn’t used in general.
 3. Two Straight Line Camber.
• It consists of both straight lines steeper near the edges
and flatters near the crown. This type of camber is
considered to be the best for Indian roads.
 4. Barrel Camber.

• It consists of a continuous curve, either

parabolic or elliptical. This type of camber
is preferred for roads used by fast-moving
vehicles.
 IRC Specification for Camber
Sr. Types of road surface Low rainfall Heavy rainfall
no
1 Cement concrete and thick 1 in 60 or 1.7% 1 in 50 or 2.0%
bituminous surface
2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 50 or 2.0% 1 in 40 or 2.5%

3 Water bound macadam and 1 in 40 or 2.5% 1 in 33 or 3.0%

gravel pavement
4 Earth Road 1 in 33 or 3.0% 1 in 25 or 4.0%
 3.4 Design speed
• Definition – The maximum safe speed of vehicles assumed as a
geometrical design of a highways is known as design speed
• Factor Affecting the Design Speeds-
• Class and condition of road surface
• Nature ,intensity and type of traffic
• Types of road along the road
• Sight distance required
• Structure of the road
IRC Specification for camber
 3.5Gradient

• Definition – The rate of rise or fall along

the length of road with respect to the
horizontal is known as gradient.
• Gradient = Vertical distance
Horizontal distance
 Object or purpose of gradient
• To connect the two stations or points with each other,
which are located at different levels.
• To provide Effective drainage of rain water especially
when the pavement is provided with the curbs.
• To construct the side drains economically.
• To make the earthwork required for the road construction
economic by balancing cutting and filling.
 Factor Affecting Gradient
• Nature of the ground
• Drainage required
• Nature of the traffic
• The type of road surface
• The total height to be covered
• Road and railway interaction
• Safety Required
• Bridge Approaches
 Types of gradient
• 1) Ruling Gradient
• 2) Limiting Gradient
• 3) Exceptional Gradient
• 4) Average Gradient
• 5) Floating Gradient
• 6) Minimum Gradient
• Ruling Gradient-
• The gradient, which is usually adopted while making the
alignment of the road, is known as the ruling gradient.
• The ruling gradient is used for designing the road because
it gives maximum safety at minimum cost.
• Limiting Gradient-
• The gradient, which is steeper than the ruling gradient, is
known as the limiting gradient. In some situations, we
cannot adopt the ruling gradient, where we have to use a
limiting gradient.
• It is usually used in hilly terrain and rolling terrain.
• Exceptional Gradient-
• The gradient, which is steeper than the limiting gradient,
is known as the exceptional gradient. This type of
gradient is generally used in an extraordinary situation
where shorter lengths of the roads are available.
• Exceptional gradients are a very steeper gradient that is
used in the unavoidable situation like in the mountainous
region and terrain.
• Average Gradient-
• The total rate of rising or fall between any two points
along the alignment of the road divided by the horizontal
distance between two points is known as an average
gradient
• Floating Gradient-
• The gradient on which a motor vehicle, moving with a
constant speed, continues to descend at the same speed
without any application of power or brakes is known as a
floating gradient.
• Minimum Gradient-
• The minimum desirable slope which is essential for the
effective drainage of rainwater from the surface of the
known as a minimum gradient. It is usually adapt where
surface drainage is important.
IRC recommendation for
gradient
 Sight Distance
• Definition- The distance along the center line of the road
at which a driver has visibility of an object, stationary or
moving at a specified height above the carriage way is
known as sight distance.
• OR
• Definition- Sight distance is the length of road visible
ahead to the driver at any instance.
• The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following conditions
:
• Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or road
length visible to stop vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead,
without collision.
• Driver travelling ahead should be able to overtake slow moving vehicles, at
reasonable intervals, without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic of
opposite direction.
• The driver entering a uncontrolled intersection, he should have sufficient
visibility to enable him to control his vehicle in order to avoid collision with
another vehicle.
 Factors Affecting Sight Distance

• The sight distance depends upon following factors –

• Speed of the vehicle.
• The frictional resistance of the road surface.
• Height of drivers eye.
• Slope of the road surface.
• Perception time and brake reaction time.
 Types of Sight Distance

• Stopping or non-passing sight distance

• Overtaking or passing sight distance
• Intermediate sight distance
• Lateral sight distance.
• 1. Stopping or Non-passing Sight Distance :
• The clear distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his
vehicle to a stop before meeting a stationary object on the
road is called as stopping or non-passing sight distance.
• Below are given some of the examples of sight distance at
various situations of road.
1. Sight Distance @ Horizontal Curve-
2. Sight Distance @ Road Intersection
3. Sight Distance @ Vertical
Summit Curve
 Perception and Brake Braking Safe Sight
Speed Stopping Distance
Reaction
V (km/h) Time t (sec) Distance Coefficient Distance Calculated Design
(m) of (m) values Values (m)
d1=0.278 longitudion d2= V²/254 (d1 + d2)
Vt al friction f
(f)
20 2.5 14 0.40 4 18 20

25 2.5 18 0.40 6 24 25

30 2.5 21 0.40 9 30 30

40 2.5 28 0.38 17 45 45

50 2.5 35 0.37 27 62 60

60 2.5 42 0.36 39 81 80

65 2.5 45 0.36 46 91 90

80 2.5 56 0.35 72 128 130

• 2. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) :
• The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver on
a two way road to enable him to overtake another vehicle
ahead with safety against the traffic from opposite
direction is called overtaking or passing sight distance.
• The minimum over taking sight distance depends upon the
following factors:
• Speed of overtaking, overtaken and the speed of the
vehicle coming from the opposite direction.
• Distance between the vehicles.
• Rate of acceleration of the overtaking vehicle.
• Skill and reaction time of the driver
• L = Length of OSD
L = d1 + d2 + d3
• d1 = The distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle ‘A’ on the first
lane before it comes out on second lane for the purpose of overtaking
during this it slows down.
• d2 = The distance by vehicle ‘A’ during the total overtaking time while
coming from first lane to second lane, accelerating along the second
lane.
• d3 = Distance travelled by vehicle ‘C’ on second lane during the
accelerating time.
• Substituting for d1, d2, and d3 in Equation, L = (V2 x t) +
(2S + V2 x t0) + (V x t0) = [ V2t +(Vst0+2S) + V t0]
• The safe spacing ‘S’ to be kept between vehicle ‘A’ (fast
moving) and vehicle B (slow moving) is given by
expression. S = ( V2 × 0.7 ) + length of vehicle ‘A’ (assume
6m) = 0.7 V2 + 6.
• The value of t0 is obtained by the following equation, t0 =
2√S/a, here a = acceleration in m/sec².
overtaking sight distance for various speed as
recommended by IRC
Sr. Speed in Time Time Time
no. Km/h Component Component Component
in Seconds in Seconds in Seconds

For For Total Safe OSD in

Overtaking Opposite meters
Manocurve Vehicle
1 40 9 6 15 165

2 50 10 7 17 235

3 60 10.8 7.2 18 300

4 65 11.5 7.5 19 340

5 80 12.5 8.5 21 470

6 100 14 9 23 640
• 3. Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) :
• The distance which affords reasonable opportunities to
drivers to overtake the vehicle ahead with caution is
known as intermediate sight distance. ISD is taken as
twice the safe stopping distance.
 Design Values of ISD as recommended by
IRC are given below
Speed (Km/h) Intermediate Speed (Km/h) ISD (m)
Sight Distance
20 40 50 120

25 50 60 160

30 60 65 180

35 80 80 240

40 90 100 360
• 4. Lateral Sight Distance :
• The sight distance needed by the driver of a vehicle who
see another vehicles approaching the intersection, reacts
and applies brakes to bring his vehicle to dead stop at the
intersection without any collision or accident is called safe
sight distance for entering into an intersection or lateral
sight distance.
• The lateral sight distance should be sufficient to satisfy the
following three conditions :
• o enable both or at least one approaching vehicles to change
their speeds to avoid collision.
• To bring at least one or both the approaching vehicles to stop
before reaching a point of collision.
• To enable the stopped vehicles on minor road to start, accelerate
and cross the main road before the approaching vehicle, traveling
at design speed on main road, reaches the interaction.
 Overtaking zones
• There may be stretches of road where the safe overtaking
distance can not be provided. In such case, overtaking
opportunity for vehicles moving at a design speed should
be given at frequent interval. These zones which are
meant for overtaking, are called overtaking zones.
 Road Curves
• Road Curves play a vital role in the geometric design of
road and railway alignments. Hence, it must be properly
studied and designed so as to provide safety, comfort and
convenience at the time of driving the vehicles or train on
road curves.
• The geometrical arc provided at change in alignment
or gradient of road are known as curves.
 Necessity of Road Curves :

• Excessive cutting or filling can be prevented by providing the change in

alignment by road curve.
• The obstruction like natural or artificial which comes in the way of straight
alignment can be made easier by providing the by-pass with the help of curves.
• In the straight route, gradients are made more comfortable and easy by
providing diversions with the help of road curves.
• In a straight route, if costly land comes in the way, then can be avoided by
providing diversions with the help of curves.
• Track or road is made stable and safe side of the hill by changing the
alignment.
 Functions of Curves on Road and Track Alignment

• Gradual change in direction or orientation in the

alignment can be made by providing the curves.
• Road curves are provided so as to get comfort to the
passengers.
• Curves are provided so as to get easy turning in case of
road and track.
Types of Road Curves
 Horizontal Curves :

• he road curves which are provided at turning points so as

to get gradual change in the direction of alignment of a
road or a track are termed as horizontal curves. Generally
these types of curves are in the horizontal plan.
• In railway track, the minimum radius of a horizontal curve
should be 175 m for broad gauge.
• Horizontal as well as vertical, curves in case of road must
ensure safety, comfort and convenience of the traffic.
 1. Simple Road Curve :

• The curve which consists of a single arc of a circle

of which two straight tangents further connects
and brings about a deflection of the road through
an angle ‘θ’ is called as simple curve. See the
diagram given below for better understanding.
• Simple curve is normally represented by the
length of its radius or by the degree of curve. This
type of curve is provided at every change in
alignment of the road or railway track in a plain
 2. Compound Road Curves :

• A curve of having the series of two and more simple curves

of different radii curving in the same direction is called as
compound curves. Refer the below figure for better
understanding.
• In compound curves, the two adjacent curves will have a
common tangent ‘BC’ as shown in above figure. The centers
of two adjacent curve lie on the same side of the curve as
shown in above figure.
• To avoid the cutting through hard rocks, heavy cutting or
filling in the alignment of road or track, compound curves
are provided.
 3. Reverse Curve :

• The curve which consists of two simple curve having equal

or different radii turning in opposite direction is called as
reverse curve. The two centers of curves are on opposite
sides of a common tangent ‘BD’.
• Reverse curves are necessary on hill roads where
frequently changes in the direction of travel is required.
Reverse curves are also necessary for cross-overs in
station yards and in the alignment of the railway tracks in
hilly areas.
 4. Transition Curve :

• The transition curve is defined as the curve in which

radius varies gradually from infinity to a finite value equal
to that of the circular curve to be connected and vice
versa is termed as transition curve.
• These curves are commonly used in railway tracks
between the circular curve and a tangent so as to provide
easy and gradual change in direction.
• Minimum length of transition curve should be determined
from the following two consideration and greater of two
values be adopted for design purposes.
• (i) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should
not causes discomfort to driver.
• Where, L = length of transition in meter, V = Speed in
km/h, R = Radius of circular curve in meter, C = 80/ (75 + V)
• (ii) The rate of change of super-elevation should be such that
it should not cause any discomfort to passage. On this base 10
minimum length of transition is found our from the relation.
• For plain and rolling terrain,
• For mountainous and steep terrain,
 Vertical Curves

• Definition - The curves which are provided in the

alignment of road or track at change of gradient is termed
as vertical curves.
• Necessity of Vertical Road Curves :
• It gives adequate visibility and safety to the traffic.
• Vertical curves give gradual change in grade or slope.
• It gives adequate comfort to the passengers.
• 1. Summit Curves :
• The curves which are having convex surface on upward
side is termed as summit curves. Vertical curves are used
mainly when rising gradient intersects a falling gradient
or when rising gradient meets another rising gradient or
when rising gradient meets a horizontal road or when the
falling gradient meets at a steeper falling gradient.
• 2. Valley Curves :
• The road curves which are having the convex surface on
downward side is termed as valley curve. Above figure
shows the different situations where valley curves are
provided.
 Widening of roads on curves

• The extra width of carriageway

that is required on a curved
section of a road over and above
that is required on a straight
alignment is known as Extra
Widening or widening of roads.
Total reaction time of the driver
• Reaction Time- Reaction time of a driver is the time
taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to
the instant when the brakes are applied.
• Categories –
• 1) Break reaction time –The time taken the diver of
vehicle for the application of brake is known as break
reaction time.
• 2) Perception time - The time taken the diver of vehicle
to realise that the brake is to be applied is known as
perception time
 Super Elevation or cant or
banking
• Definition- The inward transverse inclination provided
to the cross-section of the carriageway at horizontally
curved portion of a road is called super elevation, cant, or
banking.
• Super elevation on road is provided to counteract the
effect of centrifugal force and to minimize the tendency of
the vehicle to overturn or skid by raising the outer edge of
the pavement with respect to the inner edge, providing a
transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal
curve.
 Object of providing super
elevation
• 1. To counteract the effect of centrifugal force acting on
the moving vehicle to pull out the same outward on a
horizontal curve.
• 2. To help a fast-moving vehicle to negotiate a curved path
without overturning and skidding.
• 3. To ensure safety to the fast-moving traffic.
• 4. To prevent damaging effects on the road surface due to
improper distribution of load.
• As per the figure, the below forces are acting on a car
• In order to find out the angle of elevation (Super Elevation) the “tan”
formula is used
• From above fig, tanθ = Opposite Side
⁄Adjacent Side
• therefore, tanθ = E⁄B
• The below forces are acting on the vehicle as mentioned in figure:
• Weight of the vehicle = W kg (↓) ;
• Centripetal force = P (→);
• Frictional forces = F1 & F2 (← );
• Hence, P.Cosθ = W.Sinθ+F1+F2
where F = fR
• P.Cosθ = WSinθ + fR1 + fR2
• = W.Sinθ + f(R1 + R2)
• = W.Sinθ + f(PSinθ+WCosθ)
• P.Cosθ-f.PSinθ = W.Sinθ+f.WCosθ
• Divide with “W.Cosθ”;
• (P.Cosθ-f.PSinθ)
⁄W.Cosθ = (W.Sinθ+f.WCosθ)
⁄W.Cosθ
• P
⁄W -(f.P⁄W)tanθ = tanθ + f
• P
⁄W (1-f.tanθ) = tanθ+f
• P
⁄W = (tanθ+f)
⁄1-f.tanθ
• P
⁄W = e + f
• But, P⁄W = V2/ gR
• Therefore, e + f = V2/ gR
• Where,
• e = rate of Super elevation in %
• V = velocity of vehicle in m/s
• f = lateral friction factor = 0.15
• g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
• R = radius of circular curve in meters.
• If velocity is in KMPH then e + f = V2/ 127R
 Maximum and minimum superelevation in road

• Maximum superelevation in road as per IRC:-

• in india, as per the rules & guidelines of Indian Road
Congress (IRC), generally maximum super elevation in
road is 1 in 15 or 4° or 7% provided for plain, rolling
terrain and snowbound area. For hilly terrain road which
do not bound by snow maximum super elevation is about 1
in 10 or 10% is allowable and for urban Road it is about 1
in 25 or 4% is permissible.
• Minimum super elevation in road as per IRC:-
• in india, as per the rules & guidelines of Indian Road
Congress (IRC), generally minimum supe relevation in
road is 1 in 50 to 1 in 25 (2% to 4%) provided for plain,
rolling terrain and snowbound area. Value of minimum
super elevation in road is just equal or nearer to value of
camber or slope of road to ensure safely passes of fast
moving vehicles and drain off rainwater from surface of
road.
Maximum and minimum superelevation in road
as per IRC
Method Of Providing Superelevation

• Elimination of the crown of the cambered section.

• Rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation.
• 1. Elimination of The Crown of The Cambered Section
• In this method, the outer half of the camber is gradually
decreased. This may be done by two methods.
• In the first method, the outer half of the camber is
rotated about the crown at the desired rate such that the
surface falls on the same plane as the inner half.
 In the second method, the crown is progressively
shifted outwards. This method is not usually adopted .
• 2. Rotation of Pavement To Attain Full Superelevation
• In this stage, super elevation is gradually provided over
the full width of the carriageway so that the required
super elevation is available at the beginning of the
circular curve. The different method employed for
attaining the super elevation is as follows:
• A. Revolving Pavement About The
Center Line
• In this method the surface of the road is
rotated about the center line of the
carriageway, gradually lowering the inner
edge and rising the upper edge. The level
of the center line is kept constant. This
method is widely used.
• B. Revolving Pavement About The
Inner Edge
• In this method, the surface of the road
is rotated about the inner edge, raising
the center and outer edge.
• C. Revolving Pavement About The Outer
Edge
• In this method, the surface of the road is
rotated about the outer edge depressing
the center and inner edge.