The document discusses database system concepts and architecture, focusing on data models, schemas, and the three-schema architecture. It outlines the categories of data models, including conceptual, physical, and implementation models, and explains the distinction between database schema and state. Additionally, it covers data independence, emphasizing the ability to change schemas at different levels without affecting others.
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Chapter 2
The document discusses database system concepts and architecture, focusing on data models, schemas, and the three-schema architecture. It outlines the categories of data models, including conceptual, physical, and implementation models, and explains the distinction between database schema and state. Additionally, it covers data independence, emphasizing the ability to change schemas at different levels without affecting others.
Outline Data Models and Their Categories History of Data Models Schemas, Instances, and States Three-Schema Architecture Data Independence DBMS Languages and Interfaces Database System Utilities and Tools Centralized and Client-Server Architectures Classification of DBMSs
Categories of Data Models Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models: Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data. Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the computer. Implementation (representational) data models: Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by many commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational data models used in many commercial systems).
Schemas versus Instances Database State: The data in database may change frequently The actual data stored in a database at a particular moment in time is called database state or snapshot. Also called database instance (or occurrence or snapshot). The term instance is also applied to individual database components, e.g. record instance, table instance, entity instance
Database Schema vs. Database State Database State: Refers to the content of a database at a moment in time. Initial Database State: Refers to the database state when it is initially loaded into the system. Valid State: A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the database.
Database Schema vs. Database State (continued) Distinction The database schema changes very infrequently. The database state changes every time the database is updated.
Three-Schema Architecture Proposed to support the following three DBMS characteristics : Self describing nature Insulation of programs and data. Support of multiple views of the data.
Three-Schema Architecture Defines DBMS schemas at three levels: Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical storage structures and access paths (e.g indexes). Typically uses a physical data model. Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the structure and constraints for the whole database for a community of users. Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model. External schemas at the external level to describe the various user views. Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.
Three-Schema Architecture Mappings among schema levels are needed to transform requests and data. Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for execution. Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is reformatted to match the user’s external view (e.g. formatting the results of an SQL query for display in a Web page)
Data Independence The capacity to change the schema at one level of a database system without having to change the schema at the next higher level. Logical Data Independence:
The capacity to change the conceptual schema without
having to change the external schemas and their
associated application programs. Physical Data Independence:
The capacity to change the internal schema without
having to change the conceptual schema.
For example, the internal schema may be changed
when certain file structures are reorganized or new