By

K PAVAN KUMAR
Dept. Of CSE
VFSTR University
Secondary Storage Structure
 Overview of mass-storage structure,
 Disk structure, disk scheduling;
 File Systems - file concept, access methods
 Directory structure,
 File system mounting,
 File sharing protection;
 File-system structure,
 File system implementation,
 Directory implementation,
 Allocation methods,
 Free space management.
Mass-storage structure

 Mass storage refers to various techniques and

devices for storing large amounts of data.
 Measured in GB(1,024MB) and TB(1,024GB).
 Called auxiliary storage.
Ex:
 Solid-state drives (SSD) -- Hard drives
 External hard drives -- Optical drives
 Tape drives -- RAID storage
 USB storage -- Flash memory cards
Tape Drive
 Reads and writes data on a magnetic tape.
 Used for offline, archival data storage.
 Low cost and a long archival stability.
 Average access times.
Optical Disc Drive

 ODD is a disc drive that uses laser light or

electromagnetic waves.
 Used for Read/Write.

 Common types are Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-

ray discs.
Flash Drive

 Uses EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable

read-only) format to store and retrieve data.
 Flash drives operate in a similar fashion as
conventional hard drives.
Flash drive/Pen drive

 Small and portable storage device

 Connect by using a USB Type
 The way flash drives work is similar to solid-
state drives, or SSDs.
SDD

 Stores data in microchips that contain flash

memories, which are interconnected.

 Increased durability due to no moving parts.

 Faster data transfer rates
 More reliable long-term storage

 HDD
RAID

 RAID (redundant array of independent

disks):
 Way of storing the same data in different places
on multiple hard disks or SSDs to protect data in
the case of a drive failure.
Flash Memory

 A flash memory card (sometimes called a storage

card) is a small storage device that uses
nonvolatile semiconductor.

 Flash memory is a solid-state electronic memory

 2 types of flash memory.
 NAND flash memory is usually used for general-
purpose data storage and transfer.
 NOR flash memory is typically used for storing
digital configuration data
Overview of Mass Storage

 Magnetic Disks
 Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic disks

 It provide the bulk of secondary storage for

modern computer systems.
 Conceptually, disks are relatively simple
 Each disk platter has a flat circular shape, like a
CD.
 Common platter diameters range from 1.8 to 5.25
inches.
 The two surfaces of a platter are covered with a
magnetic material.
 We store information by recording it magnetically
on the platters.
Moving-head Disk
Mechanism
 The heads are attached to a disk arm that moves
all the heads as a unit.
 The surface of a platter is logically divided into
circular tracks, which are subdivided into sectors.
 The set of tracks that are at one arm position
makes up a cylinder.
 There may be thousands of concentric cylinders in
a disk drive, and each track may contain hundreds
of sectors.
 The storage capacity of common disk drives is
measured in gigabytes.
 Disk speed has two parts.
 The transfer rate is the rate at which data flow
between the drive and the computer.
 The Seek time is the time for the disk arm to
move the heads to the cylinder containing the
desired sector.
 Rotational latency is the time for the desired
sector to rotate to the disk head.
Magnetic Tapes

 It used as a medium for transferring information

from one system to another.
 Typically, they store from 20 GB to 200 GB.
 Some have built-in compression that can store
more than the double the effective storage.
 Tapes and their drivers are usually categorized by
width, including 4, 8, and 19 millimeters and 1/4
and 1/2 inch.
Disk Scheduling

 Used for schedule I/O requests arriving for the

disk.
 Disk scheduling is also known as I/O
scheduling.
 Multiple I/O requests may arrive by different
processes and only one I/O request can be served
at a time by the disk controller.
 Thus other I/O requests need to wait in the
waiting queue and need to be scheduled.
Disk Scheduling
Algorithms

 Used for disk scheduling.

 The purpose of disk scheduling algorithms is to
reduce the total seek time.

 Less rotational latency.

 The drive controllers have small buffers and can
manage a queue of I/O requests
 Several algorithms exist to schedule the servicing
of disk I/O requests
 FCFS
 SSTF
 SCAN
 C-SCAN
 LOOK
 C-LOOK
FCFS

 Entertains requests in the order they arrive in the

disk queue.
 It is the simplest disk scheduling algorithm.
Advantages-
 It is simple, easy to understand and implement.
 It does not cause starvation to any request.
Disadvantages-
 It results in increased total seek time.
 It is inefficient.
Ex: FCFS
 Consider a disk queue with requests for I/O to blocks on cylinders
98, 183, 41, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67.
 The head is initially at cylinder number 53.
 The cylinders are numbered from 0 to 199.
 The total head movement (in number of cylinders) incurred while
servicing these requests is _______.
 Total head movements incurred while servicing these
requests

(98 – 53) + (183 – 98) + (183 – 41)

=
+ (122 – 41) + (122 – 14) + (124 –
14) + (124 – 65) + (67 – 65)
=632
 SSTF
 Shortest Seek Time First.
 This algorithm services that request next which requires least
number of head movements from its current position regardless of
the direction.
 It breaks the tie in the direction of head movement.
Advantages-
 It reduces the total seek time as compared to FCFS.
 It provides increased throughput.
 It provides less average response time and waiting time.
Disadvantages-
 There is an overhead of finding out the closest request.
 The requests which are far from the head might starve for the CPU.
 It provides high variance in response time and waiting time.
 Switching the direction of head frequently slows down the algorithm.
 Total head movements incurred while servicing
these requests = (65 – 53) + (67 – 65) + (67 – 41)
+ (41 – 14) + (98 – 14) + (122 – 98) + (124 – 122)
+ (183 – 124)
 = 236
 In following sequence-
4, 34, 10, 7, 19, 73, 2, 15, 6, 20
 Currently at cylinder 50, what is the time
taken to satisfy all requests if it takes 1 ms to
move from one cylinder to adjacent one and
shortest seek time first policy is used?

Total head movements incurred while servicing

these requests= (50 – 34) + (34 – 20) + (20 –
19) + (19 – 15) + (15 – 10) + (10 – 7) + (7 – 6)
+ (6 – 4) + (4 – 2) + (73 – 2)
= 119
Time taken for one head movement = 1 msec.
So,
SCAN Disk Scheduling

 Scans all the cylinders of the disk back and

forward.
 Head starts from one end of the disk and move
towards the other end servicing all the requests in
between.
 After reaching the other end, head reverses its
direction and move towards the starting end
servicing all the requests in between.
 The same process repeats.
SCAN

 SCAN Algorithm is also called as Elevator Algorithm.

Advantages-
 It is simple, easy to understand and implement.
 It does not lead to starvation.
 It provides low variance in response time and
waiting time.
Disadvantages-
 It causes long waiting time for the cylinders just
visited by the head.
 It causes the head to move till the end of the disk
even if there are no requests to be serviced.
Ex: SCAN
 98, 183, 41, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

 Total head movements

incurred while servicing
these requests
= (65 – 53) + (67 – 65) + (98 – 67) +
(122 – 98) + (124 – 122) + (183 –
124) + (199 – 183) + (199 – 41) + (41
– 14) = 331
Alternatively,
 Total head movements incurred
while servicing these requests

= (199 – 53) + (199 – 14)

= 146 + 185
= 331
C-SCAN

 Circular-SCAN is improved version of the SCAN.

 Head starts from one end of the disk and move
towards the other end servicing all the requests in
between.
 After reaching the other end, head reverses its
direction.
 It then returns to the starting end without
servicing any request in between.
 The same process repeats.
Advantages-
 The waiting time for the cylinders just visited by
the head is reduced as compared to the SCAN
Algorithm.
 It provides uniform waiting time.
 It provides better response time.
Disadvantages-
 It causes more seek movements as compared to
SCAN Algorithm.
 It causes the head to move till the end of the disk
even if there are no requests to be serviced.
 Ex: C-SCAN
 98, 183, 41, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

 Total head movements

incurred while servicing
these requests
=(65–53)+(67–65)+(98–67) +(122–
98)+(124–122)+(183 –124)+(199–
183)+(199–0) +(14–0)+(41–14)= 386
 98, 183, 41, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

 Alternatively,
Total head movements
incurred while servicing
these requests
= (199 – 53) + (199 – 0) +
(41 – 0)
= 146 + 199 + 41= 386
LOOK Scheduling

 LOOK Algorithm is an improved version of the

SCAN Algorithm.
 Head starts from the first request at one end of
the disk and moves towards the last request at
the other end servicing all the requests in
between.
 After reaching the last request at the other end,
head reverses its direction.
 It then returns to the first request at the starting
end servicing all the requests in between.
 The same process repeats.
LOOK Scheduling

Advantages-
 It does not causes the head to move till the ends of the disk
when there are no requests to be serviced.
 It provides better performance as compared to SCAN
Algorithm.
 It does not lead to starvation.
 It provides low variance in response time and waiting time.

Disadvantages-

 There is an overhead of finding the end requests.

 It causes long waiting time for the cylinders just visited by
the head.
Ex: LOOK
 98, 183, 41, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

 Total head movements

incurred while servicing
these requests=(65 – 53) +
(67 – 65) + (98 – 67) + (122 – 98) +
(124 – 122) + (183 – 124) + (183 –
41) + (41 – 14)= 299
Circular-LOOK Scheduling

 An improved version of the LOOK Algorithm.

 Head starts from the first request at one end of
the disk and moves towards the last request at
the other end servicing all the requests in
between.
 After reaching the last request at the other end,
head reverses its direction.
 It then returns to the first request at the starting
end without servicing any request in between.
 The same process repeats.
C-Look

Advantages-
 It does not causes the head to move till the ends of the
disk when there are no requests to be serviced.
 It reduces the waiting time for the cylinders just visited by
the head.
 It provides better performance as compared to LOOK
Algorithm.
 It does not lead to starvation.
 It provides low variance in response time and waiting time.

Disadvantages-
 There is an overhead of finding the end requests.
Ex:C- LOOK
 98, 183, 41, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67

 Total head movements

incurred while servicing
these requests=(183 –
53) + (183 – 14) + (41 –
14)
= 326
Ex:C- LOOK
 47, 38, 121, 191, 87, 11, 92, 10
 Total head movements
incurred while servicing
these requests=(87–
63)+(92–87)+(121–
92)+(191–121)+(191 –
10)+(11–10)+(38–
11)+(47–38) = 346
SCAN Vs LOOK

 SCAN Algorithm scans all the cylinders of the disk

starting from one end to the other end even if
there are no requests at the ends.

 LOOK Algorithm scans all the cylinders of the disk

starting from the first request at one end to the
last request at the other end.
 SSTF and LOOK will be the most efficient
algorithm.
Ex:
 Consider the following disk request sequence for a
disk with 100 tracks
 45, 21, 67, 90, 4, 89, 52, 61, 87, 25.
 Head pointer starting at 50. Find the number of
head movements in cylinders using all
scheduling.