Computer Networks

Delivered By
NAMRA MUKHTAR
LECTURER, USKT
 Contents
• Internet protocol suite
• TCP vs IP
• TCP vs OSI
• OSI Model
• 7 layers of OSI
• Data flow
 Internet protocol suite
• The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications
protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks.
• Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s TCP/IP
• In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between
Stanford and University College London.
• Just like people, it’s important for computers to have a common way to
communicate with each other. Today most computers do this through TCP/IP.
Reference Model
• In computer networks, reference models give a conceptual
framework that standardizes communication between heterogeneous
networks.
The two popular reference models are
• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 How do TCP and IP differ?

• TCP and IP are two separate computer network protocols.

• IP is the part that obtains the address to which data is sent. TCP is
responsible for data delivery once that IP address has been found.

• It's possible to separate them, but there isn’t really a point in making
a difference between TCP and IP. Because they're so often used
together, “TCP/IP” and the “TCP/IP model” are now recognized
terminology.
TCP/IP Model
• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains
four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
The first layer is the Application layer on the behalf of the sender and
Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
TCP vs OSI

Or data link layer or

interface layer
 Header + Data

Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

 Osi model
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model breaks down how information and requests are sent
from one computer to another, starting at the user making a request and ending at that information
traveling over some transmission medium.

• Each layer must make sure that information is being passed correctly between the layers above and
below it. If all the layers are doing their jobs, your computer will be able to communicate with
others.

• Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984.

7 Layers OSI Reference
Model
 Application Layer
This layer directly interacts with data from the user. Software
applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the application
layer to initiate communications
• Domain name system (DNS)

• File transfer protocol (FTP)

• Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)

• Internet massage access protocol (IMAP)

• Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)

• Simple Network Management Protocol

(SNMP)
Functions of Application layer:

• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the
files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global information about various
objects.
Application Layer (Layer 7)
Protocols
• HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for web browsing
and communication between web servers and clients.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Transfers files between systems over a network.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Sends email messages between mail
servers.
• DNS (Domain Name System): Resolves domain names (e.g., google.com) to IP
addresses.
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Monitors and manages
network devices.
• Function: Provides network services directly to end-user applications,
enabling web browsing, file transfers, email, and other services.
 Presentation Layer
• A Presentation layer is mainly
concerned with the information
exchanged between the two
systems.
• This layer is a part of the operating
system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another
format.
• It acts as a data translator for a
network.
• The Presentation layer is also
known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
• Translation: Different computers use different encoding methods (ASCII,EBSDIC),
the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a
common format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent
format at the receiving end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
• Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
Protocols
• SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security): Encrypts
data to provide secure communication over the internet.
• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange):
Converts text into a standard format for compatibility.
• JPEG/MPEG: Compression standards for images and video to reduce
file size while maintaining quality.
• XDR (External Data Representation): Provides standard encoding for
different data formats in network communication.
• Function: Handles data formatting, encryption, and compression to
ensure interoperability between different systems.
 Session Layer

• The Session layer is

used to establish,
maintain and
synchronizes the
interaction between
communicating devices.
• Functions
• Dialog control
• Half Duplex
• Full Duplex
Functions
• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the
two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.

• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are

considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is avoided.

• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other in half-duplex or full duplex. (Authentication
and Authorization)

• Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Session Layer (Layer 5)
Protocols
• NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System): Supports
communication between applications on different devices within a
network.
• PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol): Establishes VPN (Virtual
Private Network) connections for secure communication.
• RPC (Remote Procedure Call): Allows a program to execute
procedures on another networked system as if they were local.
• Function: Manages session establishment, maintenance, and
termination between applications.
 Transport
Layer
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment
of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if
an error is found. Protocols used in Transport Layer
are TCP, UDP NetBIOS.
At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted
data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also
implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in
its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number
from its header and forwards the Data which it has received to
the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has
a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station
reassembles the message.

• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus, by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.

• Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and

connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. In connection-
oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
Protocols
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-
oriented communication with error checking and retransmission.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides fast, connectionless
communication with no reliability guarantee.
• SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol): Supports multi-
streaming and multi-homing for enhanced reliability in data
transmission.
• Function: Ensures end-to-end communication, error recovery, flow
control, and segmentation of data.
 Network Layer
• The network layer works for the
transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also
takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available.
• The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer.
Segment in the Network layer is referred to
as Packet. Network layer is implemented by
networking devices such as routers and
switches.
• If sender and receiver is same
network then network layer is not
needed
Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network layer
is known as routing.

• Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely,

the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Network Layer (Layer 3)
Protocols
• IP (Internet Protocol - IPv4/IPv6): Provides logical addressing and routing of data
packets across different networks.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for network diagnostics, such as
ping and traceroute.
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A distance-vector routing protocol used for
determining the best route for data packets.
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A link-state routing protocol that dynamically finds
the best path for data.
• NAT (Network Address Translation): Modifies IP addresses in packet headers for
routing between private and public networks.
• Function: Handles logical addressing, routing, and path determination for data
traveling across different networks.
 Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node
to another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to
the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
•Logical Link Control (LLC)

•Media Access Control (MAC)

Datalink layer
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface
Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in
the header.
• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a
way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.

• Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver
in the header of each frame.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that
can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.

• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple

devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given time.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
Protocols
• MAC (Media Access Control): Governs access to the physical medium
and assigns unique MAC addresses to devices.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Maps IP addresses to MAC
addresses for local network communication.
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): Provides direct communication
between two network nodes, commonly used in dial-up connections.
• LLC (Logical Link Control): Manages error checking and flow control in
data transmission.
• Function: Provides reliable transmission over a single physical link by
handling framing, error detection, and access control.
Physical Layer
• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible
for the actual physical connection between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s
and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together.
• Common physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.
Functions of the Physical Layer
• Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization
of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.

• Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.

• Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,

devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star
topology, or mesh topology.

• Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
Protocols
• Ethernet: Defines how data is transmitted over physical cables,
including frame structure and transmission speeds.
• Wi-Fi (802.11): Wireless networking standard that enables devices to
connect over radio frequencies.
• RS-232: A standard for serial communication, commonly used in
industrial and legacy systems.
• Fiber Optic: Uses light pulses for high-speed data transmission over
long distances.
• Function: Deals with the transmission of raw bits over a physical
medium, including cables, radio waves, and fiber optics.
 Data
Flow
• When a user interacts with an
application or program on a
network, data is transferred to the
top, or application, layer, which
passes it “down” through the
layers to the bottom, or physical,
layer.
• The physical layer transmits the
data to the physical layer on the
receiving device or server, which
passes the data “up” to the
application layer on the receiving
device.
 How To Remember
All People Seem To Need Data Processing

Application Physical
Layer Layer

Presentation Transport Data

Layer Layer Layer

Session Network
Layer Layer