UNIT-I Introduction to Computer Organization

Introduction to Computer and CPU (Computer Organization,

Design and Architecture), Memory –Primary and Secondary,
Memory organization, Stored Program Concept-Von Neumann
Architecture, Data and representation: data types,
complements, fixed point representation, Introduction to
Common Bus System, Types of Buses (Data Bus, Control Bus,
Address Bus), 16-bit Common Bus System, Data Movement
among registers using Bus.
Computer architecture
• Computer architecture is about designing a computer
system to balance performance, efficiency, cost, and
reliability. It describes how a system is built from its
components. This can be a high-level overview or a
detailed explanation, including the instruction set
architecture, microarchitecture, logic design, and
implementation.
 Computer Architecture VS Computer Organization
Computer Architecture Computer Organization
Computer Architecture is concerned with the Computer Organization is concerned with the
way hardware components are connected structure and behaviour of a computer system
together to form a computer system. as seen by the user.

It acts as the interface between hardware and It deals with the components of a connection
software. in a system.
Computer Architecture helps us to Computer Organization tells us how exactly all
understand the functionalities of a system. the units in the system are arranged and
interconnected.

A programmer can view architecture in terms Whereas Organization expresses the

of instructions, addressing modes and realization of architecture.
registers.
While designing a computer system An organization is done on the basis of
architecture is considered first. architecture.

Computer Architecture deals with high- Computer Organization deals with low-
level design issues. level design issues.

Architecture involves Logic (Instruction Organization involves Physical

sets, Addressing modes, Data types, Components (Circuit design, Adders,
Cache optimization) Signals, Peripherals)
• A computer consists of five main components
namely, Input unit, Central Processing Unit,
Memory unit Arithmetic & logical unit, Control
unit and an Output unit.
• Input unit

•What it does: It’s the part of the computer that gets data from
outside sources (like you, the user) and sends it to the computer.
•Examples: Keyboard, mouse, microphone, or scanner.
•How it works: You give input (like typing on a keyboard), and the
input unit sends that data to the rest of the computer to process.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU):
• What it does: The CPU is like the brain of the computer. It does all the
thinking and decision-making.
• Parts of the CPU:
• Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU): Does math calculations and logic decisions
(like checking if something is true or false).
• Control Unit (CU): Controls and directs the flow of data within the CPU and
other parts of the computer.
• How it works: The CPU takes input, processes it, and sends out results
(or stores them).
• Memory Unit (RAM):
• What it does: The memory stores data and instructions that the CPU
needs to use right away.
• Types of memory:
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporarily stores data that the CPU is
actively using.
• Cache: A small, super-fast memory that helps the CPU access frequently used
data faster.
• How it works: The memory unit keeps data that’s being used right
now. Once the computer is turned off, the data in RAM is erased.
• Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU):
• What it does: It performs all the calculations and decision-making
that the CPU needs.
• Examples: It adds numbers, compares values (is this number greater
than that?), and performs other mathematical operations.
• How it works: When the CPU needs to do math or logic, the ALU gets
the job done and sends the result back to the CPU.
• Control Unit (CU):
• What it does: The control unit is the boss of the computer. It tells all
the other parts of the computer what to do and when to do it.
• How it works: It reads instructions from the memory, decodes them,
and makes sure they’re carried out in the right order. It keeps
everything working together smoothly.
• Output Unit:
• What it does: After the CPU processes the data, the output unit
shows the result to the user.
• Examples: Monitor (displays text and images), printer (prints
documents), speakers (play sound).
• How it works: The output unit takes the processed data from the CPU
and turns it into something we can understand, like showing a picture
on the screen or printing a document.
• Memory - Primary and Secondary
• Primary Memory: This is the immediate storage that the CPU uses to
store data that is currently being processed. Examples include:
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory that stores data
temporarily during program execution.
• Cache: A small, fast memory that stores frequently accessed data.
• Secondary Memory: Used for permanent data storage and is slower
than primary memory. Examples include hard drives, SSDs, CDs, etc.
• Memory Organization
• Memory organization refers to how the data is arranged, stored, and
accessed in a computer's memory. It involves the management of
primary and secondary memory systems to optimize speed, efficiency,
and storage capacity. Here’s a simple breakdown:
• Memory Hierarchy:
• Think of this as a system where faster memory is on top and slower
memory is on the bottom.
• Top memory (like cache and RAM) is really fast but smaller in size.
• Bottom memory (like hard drives or SSDs) is slower but holds a lot
more data.
• The computer uses the fast memory when it needs quick access and
the slower memory for long-term storage.
• How It Works:
• CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain and needs memory to
work. It uses fast memory (RAM) for quick tasks.
• But the CPU also needs large amounts of storage for all your files,
programs, etc. That’s where secondary memory (hard drive or SSD)
comes in. It’s slower but holds everything.
• Cache memory is the fastest type, and it’s right next to the CPU, so it
can provide quick access to the most-used data.
• Types of Memory in the Organization:
• Registers: These are tiny, super-fast storage locations inside the CPU that
hold data temporarily while the CPU is working.
• Cache Memory: A small, fast memory that stores the most frequently used
data to speed things up.
• RAM (Random Access Memory): The main memory the CPU uses to store
data temporarily while it’s working on it. It's fast but forgets everything
when the computer is off.
• Secondary Memory (Hard Drives, SSDs): These hold your files and
programs long-term. They are slow to access compared to RAM but can
store huge amounts of data.
• Why It Matters:
• Memory organization is important because it makes sure the
computer can quickly access the data it needs without getting stuck
or slowing down.
• It organizes data so that the computer can find and use it in the most
efficient way.
Stored Program Concept-Von Neumann
Architecture
• Stored Program Concept:
• What it is: It’s the idea that a computer stores both instructions (the
tasks it needs to do) and data (the information it works with) in its
memory.
• How it works: In this system, a program (set of instructions) is loaded
into the computer’s memory, just like any other data. The computer can
then read the instructions and follow them one by one.
• Why it’s important: Before this concept, computers were programmed
with hardwired instructions that couldn’t be easily changed. The stored
program allows us to change programs easily by just changing the data
in memory.
• Von Neumann Architecture:
• What it is: This is a type of computer design where the CPU (brain) is
connected to a single memory that stores both data and program
instructions.
• Components of Von-Neumann Model:
o Central Processing Unit
o Buses
o Memory Unit
• Central Processing Unit
• The part of the Computer that performs the bulk
of data processing operations is called the
Central Processing Unit and is referred to as the
CPU.
• The Central Processing Unit can also be defined
as an electric circuit responsible for executing
the instructions of a computer program.
• The major components of CPU are Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and a
variety of registers.
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
performs the required micro-operations for
executing the instructions. In simple words,
ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract, etc.)
and logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations
to be carried out.
• Control Unit
• The Control Unit of a computer system controls
the operations of components like ALU, memory
and input/output devices.
• Registers
• Registers refer to high-speed storage
areas in the CPU. The data processed
by the CPU are fetched from the
registers.
Registers
MAR (Memory Address Register) This register holds the memory
location of the data that needs to be
accessed.
MDR (Memory Data Register) This register holds the data that is
being transferred to or from memory.

AC (Accumulator) This register holds the intermediate

arithmetic and logic results.

PC (Program Counter) This register contains the address of

the next instruction to be executed.
• Buses
• buses refer to the communication pathways used to transfer data between components of a
computer system. A bus is a collection of wires that carry data, addresses, and control signals to
enable communication between different parts of the computer.
 Von-Neumann Architecture comprised of three major bus systems for data transfer.

Bus Description

Address Bus Address Bus carries the address of

data (but not the data) between
the processor and the memory.
Data Bus Data Bus carries data between the
processor, the memory unit and
the input/output devices.
Control Bus Control Bus carries
signals/commands from the CPU.
• Memory Unit
• A memory unit is the part of a computer that stores data. It's like a large collection of "storage cells" where information is
kept. These storage cells store binary information (1s and 0s), and the memory is organized into groups of bits called
words.

• Two major types of memories are used in computer

systems:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• What it is: RAM is the memory that a computer uses to store data
temporarily while it’s running.
• How it works: You can read and write data in RAM easily and quickly.
That’s why it’s called “random access” — you can access any part of it
directly at any time without having to go through other parts.
• Characteristics:
• It is temporary: When the computer is turned off, everything in RAM is erased.
• It is used to store things like programs you're running, data you're working on, and
other active information.
• Fast access: RAM is super fast, making it crucial for the computer's performance.
• ROM (Read-Only Memory)
• What it is: ROM is a type of memory used to store data that doesn’t change, or
at least changes very rarely.
• How it works: You can read the data stored in ROM, but you can't easily write
to it or change it. It’s “read-only.”
• Characteristics:
• It is permanent: The data in ROM stays intact even when the computer is turned off.
• Used for critical functions: ROM is used to store important instructions that the
computer needs to start up (like the BIOS or firmware). These instructions don’t change,
so there’s no need to modify them during regular use.
• Slower access: Compared to RAM, ROM is slower to access, but that's okay because the
data in it doesn't need to be changed or accessed frequently.
• General Purpose System
• The General Purpose Computer System is the modified version of the
Von-Neumann Architecture. In simple words, we can say that a
general purpose computer system is a modern day architectural
representation of Computer System.

• A general-purpose system in computer architecture is a computer

that can perform a wide range of tasks
• What Makes a System "General Purpose"?
• A general-purpose computer is designed with the following qualities:
1.Flexibility: It is not restricted to a single task. It can run many
different types of software (programs) to perform various functions.
2.Multi-tasking: It can handle multiple tasks at once, such as running a
web browser while also running a word processor. The operating
system (like Windows or Linux) helps manage the different programs.
• Standard Hardware: A general-purpose computer has hardware
components that are standard for most computers:
• CPU (Central Processing Unit): This is the brain of the computer that
does the calculations and processing.
• RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary memory that stores data
the CPU is actively working on.
• Storage (Hard Drive/SSD): This is where the computer stores data
long-term, like documents, photos, and applications.
• Input/Output devices: Devices like a keyboard, mouse, and monitor
that allow you to interact with the computer.
• Software Flexibility: A general-purpose system can run many different
kinds of software, which allows the system to do many things:
• Productivity software like word processors (e.g., Microsoft Word),
spreadsheets (e.g., Excel), and email.
• Entertainment software like video players, music players, and games.
• Web browsers like Google Chrome or Firefox for internet access.
• Programming software for developers to create new programs.
• Examples of General-Purpose Systems
1.Personal Computers (PCs): These are the most common general-purpose
systems. You can use them for:
1. Work: Writing reports, creating presentations, or analyzing data.
2. Entertainment: Watching movies, playing video games, listening to music.
3. Learning: Studying or taking online courses.
4. Communication: Sending emails, chatting, or video calling.
2.Laptops: Like PCs, laptops are portable general-purpose systems. They can do
everything a desktop computer can, but in a more compact, mobile form.
3.Smartphones: Even though they are small, smartphones are also general-
purpose systems. You can use them for making calls, browsing the internet,
running apps, taking photos, and much more.
• Parallel Processing in Computer Architecture
• Parallel processing refers to the method of executing multiple tasks or
processes simultaneously using multiple processors or cores. It is a
way to improve the performance of a computer system by allowing it
to do more than one thing at the same time.
• Key Concepts of Parallel Processing:
1.Multiple Processors or Cores:
1. In parallel processing, a computer system uses multiple processors (or multiple
cores within a single processor) to perform tasks at the same time.
2. Modern computers, for example, often have multi-core processors (e.g., 4-core,
8-core processors), where each core can handle its own task simultaneously.
2.Dividing the Work:
1. The work is divided into smaller parts, and each part is processed by a separate
processor or core. This is called task parallelism.
2. Alternatively, a single task may be broken into smaller sub-tasks that can be
executed at the same time (known as data parallelism).
• Speedup:
• Speedup refers to how much faster a task completes by using parallel
processing compared to using a single processor. Ideally, if you have N
processors, the task could be N times faster, but due to various
overheads, it’s not always perfect.
• Data and representation: data types
Data is anything the computer can process, like
numbers, text, images, or sounds. Data representation
refers to how these types of information are stored and
processed in the computer's memory. Data types are the
different categories or kinds of data that can be stored.
• Here’s a simple breakdown of the main data types in
computers:
• 1. Integer (Whole Numbers):
• What it is: These are whole numbers, both positive
and negative, like 5, -3, 0, etc.
• How it’s represented: Stored as binary (1s and 0s) in
memory.
• Example: 10, -5, 0
• Floating Point (Decimal Numbers):
• What it is: These are numbers with a decimal
point, like 3.14 or -0.001.
• How it’s represented: Stored in a special way
using binary to handle fractions.
• Example: 3.14, -2.56, 0.0
• Character:
• What it is: A single symbol or letter, like "A", "B", "1",
"!", or any other character.
• How it’s represented: Each character is stored using a
system like ASCII or Unicode, which assigns a unique
number to each character.
• Example: 'A', 'b', '7', '?'
• String (Text):
• What it is: A collection of characters, like a word
or sentence.
• How it’s represented: Stored as a sequence of
characters, usually in ASCII or Unicode format.
• Example: "Hello", "12345", "Apple pie"
Boolean (True/False):
• What it is: This data type has only two possible
values: True or False.
• How it’s represented: It’s usually stored as a single bit
(either 1 or 0), representing True or False,
respectively.
• Example: True, False
Arrays (List of Values):
• What it is: An array is a collection of values, all of
the same type, stored in a specific order.
• How it’s represented: Stored as a sequence of
data elements in memory. For example, a list of
numbers.
• Example: [1, 2, 3, 4], ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']
Memory: Stores both data and program instructions.
Primary Memory (RAM): Holds data and instructions
temporarily.

Input/Output Devices: Allow interaction with the

outside world (keyboard, display, etc.).
Fixed point representation

• Fixed Point Representation means that represents real

numbers in a computer system, where the position of
the decimal of the (or binary) point is fixed.
Total = 4 + 8 + 16 = 28
What is Signed Magnitude
Representation?
• In signed magnitude representation, we use a special way to
represent both positive and negative numbers using binary. The idea
is simple: one bit is used to represent the sign (positive or negative),
and the remaining bits represent the magnitude (the actual number
value).
• How It Works:
• In this system, the first bit is used as a sign bit:
• 0 means the number is positive.
• 1 means the number is negative.
S is Sign bit. In older version Fraction was 24 bit and E was 7 bit but for new One as shown above
 Introduction to Common Bus
System
• A Common Bus System is a mechanism used in digital computers and
microprocessors for communication between different components
such as registers, memory, and other peripheral devices. It allows
these components to share a common set of communication lines
(buses) for data transfer.
• The bus system typically consists of three main types of buses:
1.Data Bus
2.Control Bus
3.Address Bus
• Data Bus
• The Data Bus is responsible for the actual transfer of data between
components like the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. The data bus is
bidirectional, meaning data can travel in both directions (from memory
to CPU or vice versa).
• Width: The width of the data bus (in bits) determines how much data
can be transferred at once. For example, in a 16-bit bus, 16 bits of data
are transferred simultaneously.
• Function: It carries the data being processed or transferred between the
CPU and memory or between the CPU and other peripheral devices.
• Control Bus
• The Control Bus carries control signals that dictate the operation of
the system, indicating which action needs to be performed at a given
moment. This bus is typically unidirectional.
• Control Signals: These include read/write signals, clock pulses,
interrupt signals, and others that regulate data flow and coordinate
tasks.
• Address Bus
• The Address Bus is responsible for specifying the address location in
memory or I/O where data should be transferred to or retrieved from. It is
unidirectional, as it only carries address information from the CPU to the
memory or I/O devices. For example, an address bus with 16 bits can
address 65,536 locations (2^16). it means that the address bus has the
ability to specify 65,536 different memory locations or address points.
• Width: The width of the address bus determines how much address space
the system can handle.
• Function: It ensures that the data is transferred to or from the correct
location in memory or I/O.
• 16-bit Common Bus System
• In a 16-bit Common Bus System, the data bus, address bus, and
control bus are designed to handle 16 bits of data. The system will
typically include:
• 16-bit Data Bus: Allows the transfer of 16 bits (2 bytes) of data in
parallel.
• 16-bit Address Bus: Supports addressing 2^16 (65,536) memory
locations.
• Control Bus: Controls the flow of data between the CPU, memory,
and other components.
Data Movement Among Registers
Using the Bus
• In a typical system with a common bus, registers (small, fast storage locations within
the CPU) communicate with each other and other components using the bus system.
Here's how data movement occurs among registers:
1.Instruction Fetch: The CPU fetches an instruction from memory, where the address is
provided via the address bus, and the data (instruction) is retrieved via the data bus.
2.Data Transfer: When data needs to be moved from one register to another, the CPU
will:
1. Place the address of the source register on the address bus.
2. Use the control bus to generate a "read" signal.
3. The data is sent from the source register to the data bus and then placed into the destination
register.
3.Similarly, data can be moved between memory and registers, or between registers
and I/O devices, using the common bus system.
• For example, if data in Register A needs to be transferred to Register B:
• The address of Register A is placed on the address bus.
• A "read" signal is sent via the control bus to indicate the data should be
fetched from Register A.
• The data from Register A moves onto the data bus.
• The address of Register B is placed on the address bus.
• A "write" signal is sent via the control bus to write the data into Register
B.
• This movement can happen quickly and efficiently using the common bus
system, which simplifies the overall design of the system.