CHAPTER EIGHT

WRITING RESEARCH
REPORTS

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I) The Writing Process

The intrinsic value of a study can be easily

destroyed by a poor final report or
presentation.
A well-presented study can impress the
reader more than another study with greater
scientific quality but a weaker presentation.
Hence, researchers must make special efforts
to communicate clearly and fully their
research results.
Writing is a process- It takes time, and effort
and it improves with practices.
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 When writing the research report it would be
important to consider:
What is the purpose of the report?
Who will read the report?
What are the circumstances and limitations
under which the report was written?
How will the report be used? etc.

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Generally the writing process has three major phases:

I) Pre-writing
prepare to write by arranging notes on the
literature, making lists of ideas, outlining,
completing bibliographic citations, and
organizing comments on data analysis.

II) Composing
get your ideas onto paper as a first draft by
free-writing, drawing up the bibliography and
footnotes, preparing data for presentation, and
forming of an introduction and conclusion.
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III) Rewriting
evaluate and polish the report by improving
coherence, proofreading for mechanical
errors, checking citations, and reviewing
voices and usages.
This step actually involves two related procedures:
revising and editing.
 Revising – is the process of inserting new
ideas, adding supportive evidences, deleting
or changing new ideas, strengthening
transitions and links between ideas.
 Editing – is the process of cleaning up and
tightening and involves the mechanical
aspects of writing such as spelling, grammar
usage, verb tense, sentence length and
paragraph organization.
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Types of Research Reports
Reports my be defined in terms of their
degree of formality and design.
We may have:
short reports and
long reports.

a). Short Reports

Short reports are more informal and are
appropriate for studies in which the problem is
well defined, of limited scope and for which
methodologies are simple and straightforward.
Example: interim reports.
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 At the beginning, there should be a brief
statement on the problem examined and its
breadth and depth.
Next comes the conclusions and
recommendations, followed by findings that
support the conclusions.

b) Long Reports
Long reports are long and follow well-defined
formats.
They are of two types, the technical or
base report and the popular report.
Which of these to use depends chiefly on the
audience and the researcher’s objectives.
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I) The technical report
this report should include full documentation
and detail - it is the major source document.
It is the report that has the full story of what
was done and how it was done.
 It contains information on the:
sources of the data,
sampling design,
data gathering instruments,
data analysis methods, as well as
a full presentation and analysis of the data.
 Conclusions and recommendation should be
clearly related to specific findings.

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II) The popular report
The popular report is designed for the non-
technical audience with no research
background and may be interested only in
results rather than methodology.
Decision makers need help in making decisions.
Popular report should encourage rapid reading,
quick comprehension of major findings and
prompt understanding of the implication and
conclusions.

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Report Format for Long Reports
Two arrangements are typically used – the
logical format and the psychological format.

The logical format

the introductory information covering the
purpose of the study, the methodology and
limitations is followed by the findings.
The findings are analyzed and then followed
by the conclusions and recommendations.

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The psychological format
This is largely an inversion of the logical order and
is mostly used in popular reports.
The conclusions and recommendations are
presented immediately after the introduction with
the findings coming later.
Readers are quickly exposed to the most critical
information – the conclusions and recommendations.
If they wish to go further they may read on into the
findings, which support the conclusion clearly given.
Other report formats include the chronological
report, which is based on time sequence or
occurrence.

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II) Components of a Technical Report
While some may be dropped, other may be
added and their order may vary from one
situation to another, a research report contains
several components or elements.
In general there are three parts: the
prefatory pages, the body of the report and
the appended sections.
A) Prefatory pages – this section includes the title
page, letters of authorization (if any), tables of
contents, charts and illustrations, synopsis
(summary, abstracts).

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The Title page – the title page should include four
items: the title of the report, the date, for whom
prepared and by whom the report was prepared.
A satisfactory title should be brief, but should at
least include:
The variables included in the study, the type
of relationship between the variables, and
the population to which the results may be
applied.

The table of contents – any report of several

sections that totals more than six to ten pages
should have a table of content.

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Abstract (Synopsis) – this is a short summary.
For conference papers, research papers, theses
and dissertations, you will almost always be
asked to write an abstract.
It goes first in the report, but should be written
last.
It helps the reader determine whether the full
report contains important information.
Different publications have different size limits,
usually between 100 and 250 words

It is essential that your abstract includes all the

keywords of your research.

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An abstract should briefly:
Re-establish the topic of the research.
Give the research problem and/or main
objective of the research.
Indicate the methodology used.
Present the main findings and conclusions

The main point to remember is that it must be

short, because it should give a summary of your
research.

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Common Problems in preparing the Abstract
Too long and Too much detail. If your
abstract is too long, it may be rejected.
Abstracts that are too long often have
unnecessary details.
The abstract is not the place for detailed
explanations of methodology or the context
of your research problem.
Too short. Shorter is not necessarily better.
You should review your abstract and see where
you could usefully give more explanation.

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B) The body of the report – contains the
introduction, findings, summary and conclusions and
recommendations.

1) Introduction – the introduction comes at the

start of the writing and normally contains several
major subsections.
It introduces the research by situating it (by
giving the background) and presenting the
research problem as well as the rationale or
significance.

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 The problem – the statement of the problem
usually contains three parts namely the background,
the problem statement itself and the hypotheses.
 In the background, researchers should introduce
the major variables and the type of relationships
between them and relate them to previous
research and theory.
 What is it that we don’t know? What is the gap
in our knowledge this research will fill?
 The background information leads to a statement
of the specific problem, which the research
addresses (research questions).
 What steps will the researcher take to try and fill
this gap or improve the situation? (Objectives)
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 Why is this research important? Who will benefit?
Why do we need to know this? Why does this
situation, method, model or piece of equipment
need to be improved? (Rationale).
 Scope and limitations – some people shy away
from mentioning limitations. Such an attitude is
unprofessional and unethical.
Is the study limited to a specific geographical
area or to only certain aspects of the
situation? (Scope)
Is there any factor, condition or
circumstance that prevents the researcher
from achieving all his/her objectives?
(Limitations)
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Common problems in writing the Introduction
Too much detail, and hence too long:
Although you will cover important points,
detailed descriptions of method, study site and
results should come in later sections.
Repetition of words, phrases or ideas. A high
level of repetition makes your writing look careless.
Unclear problem definition. Without a clear
definition of your research problem, your reader is
left with no clear idea of what you were studying.
Poor organization. Writing an introduction that
effectively introduces your research problem is not
an easy task.
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2. Literature Review
The report also frequently includes a literature
review and links the problem with theory.
Literature means the works you consulted in
order to understand and investigate your
research problem.
Journal articles: these are good especially for up-
to-date information.
Books: books tend to be less up-to-date as it
takes longer for a book to be published than for a
journal article.
Text books offer a good starting point from
which to find more detailed sources.
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 Conference proceedings: these can be useful in
providing the latest research, or research that has
not been published.
They also provide information on which people
are currently involved.
 Government/corporate reports: many
government departments and corporations
commission or carry out research.
 Newspapers: since newspapers are generally
intended for a general (not specialized) audience,
the information they provide will be of very
limited use for your literature review- but can be a
starting point.

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 Theses and dissertations: these can be useful
sources of information.
 Internet: the fastest-growing source of
information is the Internet.
 But remember that:
1) anyone can post information on the Internet
so the quality may not be reliable,
2) the information you find may be intended for
a general audience and hence less detailed, and
3) more and more refereed electronic journals
(e-journals) are appearing on the Internet - the
quality is more reliable (depending on the
reputation of the journal).
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 CD-ROMS: more and more bibliographies are
being put onto CD-ROM for use in academic
libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in
searching for the information you need.
 Magazines: magazines intended for a general
audience (e.g. Time) are unlikely to be useful in
providing the sort of information you need.
Magazines may be a starting point by providing
news or general information about new
discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further
research in more specialized sources.

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 Common Problems:
 Trying to read everything: if you try to be
comprehensive you will never be able to finish the
reading!
The literature review should not provide a
summary of all the published work that relates to
your research, but a survey of the most relevant
and significant work.
 Reading but not writing: Writing takes much
more effort than reading- don't put writing off until
you've "finished" reading.
 Not keeping bibliographic information: When
preparing your reference you might notice that you
have forgotten to keep the information you need.
To avoid this nightmare always put references
into your writing. 25
 3. The methods: Answers at least two main
questions:
How was the data collected or generated?
How was it analyzed?
 The data collection step should cover at least five
items:
(i) the target population that is being studied
and any sampling methods used.
(ii) the research design used and the rationale
for using it including the sample size,
(iii) the materials and instruments used often
with a copy of these materials in the appendix,
(iv) the specific data collection method (survey,
observation or experiment) and
(v) a summary discussion of the data analysis
methods including the statistical tests,
computer programs, etc. 26
 Knowing how the data was collected helps you to
evaluate the validity and reliability of your results,
and the conclusions you draw from them.
 Your methodology should make clear the reasons
why you chose a particular method or procedure.
 The research methods must be appropriate to the
objectives of the study.
 It should also indicate assumptions, if there are
any.
 Common Problems
 unnecessary explanation of basic procedures
 problem blindness: Do not ignore significant
problems or pretend they did not occur.
 Often, recording how you overcame obstacles
can form an interesting part of the
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methodology.
4) Findings and Discussions – It is an organized
presentation of results and is generally the longest
section of the report.
 The Results Section includes:
statement of results: the results are presented
in a format that is accessible to the reader (e.g. in
graphs, tables, diagrams or written text).
Notice that raw data is usually put in an
appendix, if it is included at all.
explanatory text: all graphs, tables, diagrams
and figures should be accompanied by text that
guides the reader's attention to significant results.

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 The text makes the results meaningful by
pointing out the most important results,
simplifying the results, highlighting significant
trends or relationships and perhaps
commenting on whether certain results were
expected or unexpected.
 Table and figures in the text need numbers and
clear titles.
Include only those tables and figures that
present main findings and need more elaborate
discussion in the text.
Others may be put in annexes, or, if they don’t
reveal interesting points, be omitted.
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The Discussion Section:
In the discussion section we talk about what we
see in the data and give the reader unambiguous
interpretation of its meaning.
The discussion section provides explanation of the
results and includes:
Explanation of results: the writer comments on
whether or not the results were expected, and
presents explanations for the results, particularly for
those that are unexpected or unsatisfactory.
References to previous research: comparison
of the results with those reported in the literature, or
use of the literature to support a claim or a
hypothesis.
Deduction: a claim for how the results can be
applied more generally.
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5) Summary and Conclusion – the summary is a
brief restatement of the essential findings.
Findings state facts while conclusions present
inferences drawn from the findings.
The summary section presents:
What was learned
What remains to be learned (directions for
future research)
The shortcomings of what was done (evaluation)
The benefits, advantages, applications, etc. of
the research (evaluation), and
Recommendations.
The conclusions and recommendations should
follow logically from the discussion of the findings.
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Common Problems
Too long. The conclusion section should be short.
The conclusion section should be as little as
2.5% of an entire piece.
Too much detail. Conclusions that are too long
often have unnecessary detail.
Although you should give a summary of what
was learnt from your research, this summary
should be short, since the emphasis in the
conclusions section is on the implications,
evaluations, etc. that you make.

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 Failure to comment on larger, more
significant issues. Whereas in the introduction
your task was to move from general (your field) to
specific (your research), in the concluding section
your task is to move from specific (your research)
back to general (your field, how your research will
affect the world).
 Failure to reveal difficulties encountered.
Negative aspects of your research should not be
ignored.
Problems, drawbacks etc. can be included in
summary in your conclusion section as a way of
qualifying your conclusions (i.e. pointing out the
negative aspects, even if they are outweighed
by the positive aspects). 33
6) Recommendations – this involves suggested
future actions.
It makes easy reading for an outsider if the
recommendations are again placed in roughly the
same sequence as the conclusions.
The recommendations could be for further study,
to test, deepen or broaden understanding in the
subject area or for managerial actions.
The recommendations should take into
consideration the local conditions, constraints,
feasibility and usefulness of the proposed solutions.

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7) The appended section – this includes appendix
and bibliography.
i) Appendix – complex tables, statistical tests,
supplying documents, copies of forms used,
detailed description of the methodology,
instructions to field workers, and any other
evidence that may be important.
The annexes should contain any additional
information needed to enable professionals to
follow your research procedures and data
analysis.
Information that would be useful to special
categories of readers but is not of interest to the
average reader can be included in annexes as
well. 35
 Examples of information that can be presented in
annexes are:
tables referred to in the text but not included
in order to keep the report short;
lists of study sites, -districts, villages, etc.
that participated in the study;
questionnaires or check lists used for data
collection.

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II) Bibliography – there should be a bibliographic
section if the study makes heavy use of secondary
material.
This section should contain all those works, which
the researcher has consulted.
It should be arranged alphabetically and may be
divided into two parts.
The first part may contain names of books and
pamphlets and the second part may contain names
of magazines and newspaper articles.
There may be several bibliographic entry formats.
The following is one of such entry formats.

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 For books and Pamphlets the following order
may be adopted.
Name of the principal author, last name first
Title, underlined or in italic styles
Place, publisher and date of publication
Number and volumes.
 Example: Kothari, C. R. Quantitative Techniques,
New Delhi, Vikas publishing house Pvt ltd. 1978.

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 For magazines, Journal articles and
newspapers the following order is appropriate
Name of author, last name first
Title of article in quotation marks
Names of periodical underlined
The volume or volume and number
The data of the issue
The pagination
 Example: Christenson, L. R., D. W. Jorgenson and
L.J. Law, “Transcendental Logarithmic Production
Frontiers” Review of Economics and statistics,
55(19) 1973, 28–45.

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 The references in your text can be numbered in
the sequence in which they appear in the report
and then listed in this order in the list of
references (Vancouver system).
 Another possibility is the Harvard system of listing
in brackets the author’s name(s) in the text
followed by the date of the publication and page
number, for example: (Shan, 2000: 84).
 You can choose either system as long as you use
it consistently throughout the report.

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Presentation Consideration
 Reports should be physically inviting, easy to read
and match the comprehension abilities of the
designated audiences (reader).
 (1) Style of writing: Remember that your
reader:
Is short of time
Has many other urgent matters demanding his
or her interest and attention
Is probably not knowledgeable concerning
‘research jargon’
 It is always good to use words that convey
thoughts accurately, clearly and efficiently.

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 Therefore the rules are:
Simplify- Keep to the essentials.
Justify- Make no statement that is not based on
facts and data.
Quantify when you have the data to do so -
Avoid ‘large’, ‘small’; instead, say ‘50%’, ‘one in
three’.
Be precise and specific in your phrasing of
findings.
Use short sentences.
Be consistent in the use of tenses (past or
present tense).
Aim to be logical and systematic in your
presentation.

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(2) Layout of the report
A good physical layout is important since it will:
make a good initial impression,
encourage the readers, and
give them an idea of how the material has been
organized so the reader can make a quick
determination of what he will read first.
Poor reproduction, dirty typewriter type, incorrect
spelling and poor punctuation (typographic errors).
Overcrowding of text, inadequate labeling of charts
and tables, etc. reduce the credibility of a report.

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 Particular attention should be paid to make sure
there is:
An attractive layout for the title page and a
clear table of contents.
Consistency in margins and spacing.
Consistency in headings and subheadings, e.g.:
font size 16 or 18 bold, for headings of
chapters; size 14 bold for headings of major
sections; size 12 bold, for headings of sub-
sections, etc.
Numbering of figures and tables, provision of
clear titles for tables, and clear headings for
columns and rows, etc.
Accuracy and consistency in quotations and
references.
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Revising and finalizing the text
Having done the ‘analytical’ and ‘creative’ work,
you now need to put on your critical judgment
hat.
You need to take a step back and review your
report from your audience’s viewpoint.
Remember, their viewpoint is different.
They are looking for reasons to believe.
They need to be comfortable with your report
and accept your findings.

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 The following questions should be kept in mind
when reading the draft:
Have all important findings been included?
Do the conclusions follow logically from the
findings? If some of the findings contradict
each other, has this been discussed and
explained, if possible? Have weaknesses in the
methodology, if any, been revealed?
Are there any overlaps in the draft that have to
be removed? And is it possible to condense the
content?

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Do data in the text agree with data in the
tables? Are all tables consistent (with the same
number of informants per variable), are they
numbered in sequence, and do they have clear
titles and headings?
Is the sequence of paragraphs and subsections
logical and coherent? Is there a smooth
connection between successive paragraphs and
sections? Is the phrasing of findings and
conclusions precise and clear?
Perform a spell check and grammar check
Etc.

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Briefings (presentation)
Good presentation improves both the research and
the reputation of the researcher.
A successful briefing typically requires a
condensation of a lengthy and complex body of
information.
Speaking rates should not exceed 100 to 150
words per minute.
About 20 minutes presentation is usually required.
A detailed outline of what one is going to say
includes
Opening
Findings and conclusions
Recommendations 48
 The most important thing to keep in mind:
The time will usually pass a lot more quickly
than you think
Keep focused on the main ideas: The
motivation, the problem, and the main results
 You do not have to mention all of the difficulties
and shortcomings; people can ask during the
presentation
 Hypotheses: Mention the ones whose tests you
will show. You do not have to mention all.
 Data: You do not need to mention response rates
or sample size misspecifications unless these are
very important; people can ask

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 Organizing slides:
A slide should contain a handful (25) of key
points; it should not fill the page
Slides should not contain your entire
presentation, just the key things to remember
Graphics can be useful if they tell the story

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