Problem Solving

PSY 2110
 Problem Solving
Defining problem-solving activity:

1) It is purposeful, goal directed action

2) It does not involve automatic processes, but relies
on cognitive processes
3) It is only a ‘problem’ if the solution is not available
immediately.
 Defining a problem
Well defined problem: All aspects of the problem
are clearly laid out. We know the initial state,
the rules, and the goal state.
e.g. a maze
ILL defined problem: None of these things are as
clear.
you have an early morning exam, you have no food
in your room and all the stores on campus are
closed
Starting point? Potential solutions? End point?
 Problem Solving
• The idea of problem solving is perceived as a
search it’s described as having

Initial state
Operators that include
tools or path
constraints, ruling out
options and other
Goal state solutions
 Heuristics for problem solving
Hill climbing strategy: For any particular state, carry out the
operation that moves you closest to the final goal state.
(often not a good strategy)
Means-end analysis:
1. Break down the current difference between initial state and
goal into subgoals with sub-differences.
2. Choose the most important difference, then
3. find an operator that will reduce this
Working backwards:
1. Start at the goal state and
2. work backwards via means-end analysis,
Working backwards Heuristic: Example
One (painful) way to solve the water lilies problem

1 1 31 1073741824 61 1152921504606850000
• Initial number of water lilies = 1 2
3
2 32
4 33
2147483648
4294967296
62
63
2305843009213690000
4611686018427390000

•
4 8 34 8589934592 64 9223372036854780000
double the initial value 90 times 5 16 35 17179869184 65 18446744073709600000
6 32 36 34359738368 66 36893488147419100000

• Record each of these values 7

8
64 37
128 38
68719476736
137438953472
67
68
73786976294838200000
147573952589676000000
9 256 39 274877906944 69 295147905179353000000
• Find the value that is 1/2 of the 10
11
512 40
1024 41
549755813888
1099511627776
70
71
590295810358706000000
1180591620717410000000
90th day value. 12
13
2048 42
4096 43
2199023255552
4398046511104
72
73
2361183241434820000000
4722366482869650000000
14 8192 44 8796093022208 74 9444732965739290000000
15 16384 45 17592186044416 75 18889465931478600000000
16 32768 46 35184372088832 76 37778931862957200000000
17 65536 47 70368744177664 77 75557863725914300000000

Working backwards: 18
19
131072 48
262144 49
140737488355328
281474976710656
78
79
151115727451829000000000
302231454903657000000000

- value doubling every day is 20

21
524288 50
1048576 51
562949953421312
1125899906842620
80
81
604462909807315000000000
1208925819614630000000000

equivalent to say that the value is

22 2097152 52 2251799813685250 82 2417851639229260000000000
23 4194304 53 4503599627370500 83 4835703278458520000000000
24 8388608 54 9007199254740990 84 9671406556917030000000000
halved each preceding day 25 16777216 55 18014398509482000
26 33554432 56 36028797018964000
85 19342813113834100000000000
86 38685626227668100000000000
- the field was full Day 90th 27 67108864 57 72057594037927900
28 134217728 58 144115188075856000
87 77371252455336300000000000
88 154742504910673000000000000
- the field was half full on day 89th 29 268435456 59 288230376151712000
30 536870912 60 576460752303423000
89 309485009821345000000000000
90 618970019642690000000000000
 Gestalt Viewpoint
• Problem-solving is both reproductive and
productive
• Reproductive PS involves re-use of
previous experience (can be beneficial or
detrimental)
• Productive problem-solving is
characterized by restructuring and insight
• Insight accompanied by subjective “ah-ha”
 Gestalt Contributions
• Problem-solving: trial-and-error or
otherwise?
• Perception is more than just association
– it involves conceptualization
• Functional Fixedness can hinder
problem-solving (candle box problem)
• Problem restructuring: productive
• Development of insight
• Implication: importance of problem
representation
 Information-Processing Approach to
Problem-Solving
• Problem-Space Theory
– solving a problem involves negotiating
alternative paths to a solution
– initial state is linked to goal state by a path
– knowledge states are produced by the
application of mental operators
– algorithms vs. heuristics are used to move
along the path
– limited processing resources provide
constraints on the degree to which multiple
moves can be considered
 Ohlsson’s Insight Theory
• Problem-space reinterpretation of gestalt findings
– multiple mental representations of the same
problem
– specific knowledge operators needed are
retrieved from memory
– current representation of the problem acts as a
memory probe
– impasses in problem-solving are solved through
‘re-representation’
• elaboration
• constraint relaxation
• restructuring or recategorization
 Problem Isomorphs
• Similar formal structure of two
problems
• Reasoning by analogy
• Similarities often very difficult to
detect if the problems do not have
identical structure (an impediment to
generalization)
• Military vs. radiation problem
 Duncker’s (1945) Radiation Problem

Suppose you are a doctor faced with a patient who has a malignant
tumour in his or her stomach. It is impossible to operate on the patient,
but unless the tumor is destroyed the patient will die. There is a special
type of ray that can be used to destroy the tumor, as long as the rays
reach the tumor with sufficient intensity. However, at the necessary
intensity, the healthy tissue that the rays pass through will also be
destroyed and the patient will die. At lower intensities, the rays are
harmless but they will not affect the tumor either. What procedure might
the doctor employ to destroy the tumor with the rays, at the same time
avoiding destroying any healthy tissue?
Duncker Radiation Problem
 Routine v. Insight Problems: A useful
distinction?
• Key Concept: insight and trial-and-error
(routine) problems involve subjectively different
experiences
• Key Debate: “Special Process” vs. “Business as
Usual”
• Routine: problem-solvers good at predicting
their success; monitor accurately how close they
are to solution
• Insight: problem-solvers poor at predicting
success; can’t monitor closeness to solution
– “What can move large logs but cannot move a small
nail?”
Common Errors in Problem Solving
• 1. Inaccuracies in reading
– Reading material without fully understanding the
material
– Reading the material too fast
– Missing words or misreading words because you
are not reading completely
– Failing to reread difficult passages

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Common Errors in Problem Solving
• Inaccuracy in thinking
– Placing more importance on speed or ease of obtaining an answer
rather than accuracy
– Not being careful to perform needed operations accurately
– Being inconsistent in the way problems are interpreted and solved
– Not checking the accuracy of a solution
– Drawing a conclusion in the middle of the problem without sufficient
thought
– Working too quickly results in the above errors

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Common Errors in Problem Solving
• Weakness in problem analysis
– Trying to solve the whole problem without breaking it
down into sub-goals
– Failing to use prior knowledge and experiences
– Skipping difficult material or unfamiliar words, etc.
– Not properly constructing a representation of the ideas
presented in the problem

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Common Errors in Problem Solving
• Lack of perseverance
– Making a weak attempt to solve the problem –
lack of confidence?
– Choosing an answer quickly because it looked or
felt right instead of fully analyzing the problem
– Jumping to a conclusion halfway through the
process

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 Proficient Problem Solvers
• Have a positive attitude – confident
• Great concern for accuracy
• Break problems into parts that can be
accomplished
• Avoid guessing and jumping to conclusions
• More active – do more things and put in more
effort

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 Improving Problem Solving Ability
• 1. Increase knowledge base – experts have more efficient methods for problem
solving

• 2. Automate some components through expertise

• 3. Follow a systematic plan of attack

• 4. Draw inferences from information given and memory

• 5. If solution not obvious look at possible heuristics

• 6. Reformulate problem – have you defined the problem correctly

• 7. Draw a picture

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 Measuring Creativity
• Most people know who a creative person is, but
creativity is difficult to measure

• Frequent procedure involves divergent thinking – How

many uses for a brick can you think of?

• Problem is that evaluating possible solutions just as

important as generating

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