Course Code: 8604

Unit - 6
Tools and Techniques of Research
Presented By:
Dr. Abdul Khaliq
PhD (Education)
 Tool or Technique
 A tool or technique is a device or an instrument that is used for
data collection in a study.
 Tools and Technique
 Tool: the systematic procedure by which a complex or scientific
method is accomplished.
 Technique: A practical method, skill or art applied to a particular task.

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Cont.
 Different types of tools or techniques are used for data
collection according to the nature of research. Some
commonly used tools or techniques are:
 DATA COLLECTION
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
 Test  Anecdotal Record
 Observation  Rating Scales
 Questionnaire  Content Analysis
 Interview  Focused Groups
 Check List  Socio-metrics Techniques
 Attitudinal Scale  Personal Inventories
 Projective Techniques  Score Cards
 Characteristics of a Good Measuring Instrument
 The development of test of any kind always requires the
careful consideration of the qualities of good measuring
instruments. Particularly, for any test to be effectively
developed, it should carry the qualities of a good test.
 Characteristics of a Good Measuring Instrument
 Reliability
 Validity
 Objectivity
 Usability
 Validity
 Validity deals with the accuracy of the measurement
 Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what
it intends (claims, suppose, purports) to measure .
 It is the most important quality of a good measuring
instrument.
 A valid test is always reliable.
 Reliability
 Reliability is the second important quality of a good measuring instrument.
 It refers to consistency or stability of test results.
 The degree of consistency between two measures of the same thing.
 Objectivity

 Objectivity refers to the absence of subjective judgments.

 Objectivity refers to the degree to which equally competent scorers obtain the
same results.
 It refers to the degree to which personal judgment is eliminated in the scoring
of the test.
 Objectivity
 The test should be such that different teachers can similarly score the tests
and arrive at the same scores.
 Therefore, objectivity in the test requires that the personal opinion of the
teachers does not affect the score of an individual student.
 In other words, the more objective the test, the greater is its reliability.
 Usability
 The quality of a test showing ease of time, cost, administration, interpretation
is called usability of the test.
 Questionnaire
 Questionnaire is a group of questions designed to elicit (draw out a
response) information upon a subject from respondents. It acts as a
back bone for data collection.
 It is a list of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and
designed to extract specific information from the respondents is called
as Questionnaire.
 It is a set of questions.
 Questionnaire
 “A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted
to a sampling of population from which information is desired.”
Barr, Davis & Johnson
 Questionnaire
 “In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing
answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills in
himself.”
W. J. Goode & K. Hall
 Purpose
 It serves four basic purposes:
1. Collect the appropriate data
2. Make data comparable and amenable to analysis
3. Minimize bias in formulating and asking question.
4. To make questions engaging and varied.
 How Should the Questions Be Worded?
• Use simple wording • Avoid jargon and abbreviations

• Be specific • Be clear

• Avoid assumptions • Avoid bias in questions

• Avoid double-barreled questions • Use complete sentences

• Select clear and logical response • Consider language, reading level, and age
categories
 Steps in Questionnaire Construction
 Preparation
 Constructing the first draft
 Self-evaluation
 External evaluation
 Revision
 Pre-test or Pilot study
 Revision
 Second Pre-test if necessary
 Preparing final Copy
 Ways of Administering a Questionnaire
 Collective Administration - One of the best way of administering a
questionnaire is to obtain a captive audience such as students in
classroom, people attending a function.
 Administration in a public places - Sometimes you can administer a
questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping Center, health center,
hospital, school or pub, it is dependent upon the type of study
population.
 Ways of Administering a Questionnaire
 The mailed questionnaire - The most common approach to collecting
information is to send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail.
 Types of Questionnaires
 Unstructured Question - allow respondents to reply freely without
having to select one of several provided responses
 Structured Question – It specifies the respondents answer in a several
provided options in a question.
 Types of Questionnaires
 Structured Questionnaires: Structured questionnaires collect quantitative
data. The questionnaire is planned and designed to gather precise
information. It also initiates a formal inquiry, supplements data, checks
previously accumulated data, and helps validate any prior hypothesis.
 Types of Questionnaires
 Unstructured Questionnaires: Unstructured questionnaires
collect qualitative data. They use a basic structure and some branching
questions but nothing that limits the responses of a respondent. The
questions are more open-ended to collect specific data from
participants.
 Types of Questions in a Questionnaire
 You can use multiple question types in a questionnaire. In fact, using
multiple question types can help increase responses to your research
questionnaire as they tend to keep participants more engaged. Some of
the widely used types of questions are:
 Types of Questions in a Questionnaire
 Scaling Questions: These questions are based on the principles of the four
measurement scales – nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. A few of the
question types that utilize the fundamental properties of these scales are rank
order questions, Likert scale questions, semantic differential scale
questions, and Stapel scale questions.
 Types of Questions in a Questionnaire
 Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions help collect qualitative
data in a questionnaire where the respondent can answer in a free form
with little to no restrictions.
 Dichotomous Questions: The dichotomous question is generally a
“yes/no” close-ended question. This question is generally used in case of
the need of basic validation. It is the easiest form of a questionnaire.
 Types of Questions in a Questionnaire
 Multiple-Choice Questions: Multiple-choice questions are a close-ended
question type in which a respondent has to select one (single select multiple
choice question) or many (multi-select multiple choice question) responses
from a given list of options. The multiple-choice question consists of an
incomplete stem (question), right answer or answers, incorrect answers, close
alternatives, and distractors. Of course, not all multiple-choice questions
have all of the answer types. For example, you probably won’t have the
wrong or right answers if you’re looking for customer opinion.
 Types of Questions in a Questionnaire
 Pictorial Questions: This question type is easy to use and encourages
respondents to answer. It works similar to a multiple-choice question.
Respondents are asked a question, and the answer choices are images. This
helps respondents choose an answer quickly without over-thinking their
answers, giving you more accurate data.
Types of Questionnaires based on Distribution
 Computer Questionnaire
 In this type, respondents are sent the questionnaire via email or other online
mediums. This method is generally cost-effective and time-efficient.
Respondents can also answer at leisure. Without the pressure to answer
immediately, responses may be more accurate. The disadvantage, however, is
that respondents can easily ignore these questionnaires.
 Telephone Questionnaire
 A researcher makes a phone call to a respondent to collect responses directly.
Responses are quick once you have a respondent on the phone. However, a
lot of times, the respondents are hesitant to give out much information over
the phone. It is also an expensive way of conducting a questionnaire. You’re
usually not able to collect as many responses as other types of
questionnaires, so your sample may not represent the larger population.
 Mail Questionnaire
 Mail questionnaires are starting to be obsolete but are still being used in
some market research studies. This method involves a researcher sending a
physical data collection questionnaire request to a respondent that can be filled in
and sent back. The advantage of this method is that respondents can complete
this on their own time to answer truthfully and entirely. The disadvantage is that
this method is expensive and time-consuming. There is also a high risk of not
being able to collect enough responses to make actionable insights from the data.
 In-House Questionnaire
 This type of questionnaire is conducted by a researcher that visits the
home or workplace of the respondent. The advantage of this method is
that the respondent is in a comfortable and natural environment, and in-
depth data can be collected. The disadvantage though, is that it is
expensive and slow to conduct.
 Characteristics of Good Questionnaire
1. It deals with an important or significant topic.
2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire or on its
covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources
like books, reports and records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly stated or
printed.
 Characteristics of Good Questionnaire
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question
are also avoided.
 Merits of Questionnaire Method
1. It is very economical.
2. It is a time saving process.
3. It is covers the research in wide area.
4. It is very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.
 Demerits of Questionnaire Method
1. Through this we get only limited responses.
2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.
 ATTITUDINAL SCALES
 It is also called opinionaire scale. It is a type of inquiry form which is
used to obtain the measure of attitude or belief of an individual or a
group of individuals towards some phenomenon.
 Rating Scale
 Rating scale is a tool which records judgment or opinion and indicates
the degree or amount.
 Types of Rating Scales
 Likert scale
 Category scale
 Semantic Differential scale
 Staple scale
 Constant sum scale
 Graphic Scale
 Guttmann scale
 Anecdotal Records
 Anecdotal Records are the factual descriptions of meaningful
incidents and events that teacher has observed.
 Projective Techniques
 Present a person with an ambiguous stimulus and a simple instruction about
how to respond. The person constructs a response with maximum freedom.
The response reveals something about individual’s personality, motivation
and inner dynamics.
 The classic well known projective techniques are:
 Rorschach Inkblot Test
 Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)
 Advantages of Projective Techniques
 May elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give
if they knew the purpose of the study
 Helpful when underlying motivation
 Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
 Require highly trained interviewers and interpreters of results
 Serious risk of misinterpreting.
 Subjectivity
 Is the psychological material uncovered related to the topic or to the person?
 Focus Groups
 A loosely structured interview conducted by a trained moderator
among a small number of informants simultaneously.
 Focus Group Characteristics
 8 - 12 members (usually paid)
 homogeneous in terms of demographics and socioeconomic factors but
heterogeneous views experience related to product or issue being discussed
 1 1/2 –2 hour session
 1-way mirror/client may sit behind qualified moderator
 conversation may be video and/or audio taped OR notes may be taken
 Advantages of Focus Groups
 Richness of data
 Versatility
 Ability to study special respondents
 Children
 Professionals (doctors, lawyers)
 Direct involvement of managers (vividness)
 Easily understandable
 Advantages of Focus Groups
 Flexibility in covering topics
 May uncover unanticipated ideas that are important
 Can define constructs of importance
 Gives “flesh” and connectedness to real consumers/people
 Can show them designs, have them try out prototypes
 group synergy
 Disadvantages of Focus Groups
 Lack of generalizability (small sample size)
 High selection bias
 Might be misused
 focus group is not a replacement for quantitative research
 Subject to Interpretation
 Cost-per-respondent is high (compared to survey)
 Disadvantages of Focus Groups
 Results dependent on skill of moderator in running the group and
analysis
 may be the response in the moment – which may change over time
 strong personalities are a hazard
 “professional respondents”
 Checklist
 Checklists are closed-ended instruments where a respondent is typically
marking whether a behavior or attribute is present.
 Checklist
 It is a type of questionnaire in the forms of a set of items which the respondent is
asked to check. It is an important tool in gathering facts for educational surveys.
It is also used in observational studies of behavior.
 Checklist is basically a method of recording whether a characteristic is present or
absent or whether an action was taken or not.
 The check list is especially useful at the primary level, where much classroom
assessment depends on observation rather than testing.
 Sociometric Technique
 Sociometry is a quantitative method of measuring social relationship.
It has been also called a means of studying the attractions or repulsions
of members of a group or groups.
 Personality Inventory
 It is essentially a standard set of questions about some aspects of the
individual’s life history, feelings, preferences or activities presented in
a standard way and scored with standard scoring. Personality
inventory is specially designed to collect information about the
personality of an individual.
 CONTENT ANALYSIS
 Content analysis is an analysis of the contents of a communication. It is a
technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in an indirect
way by analyzing communications.
 Analysis of recorded communication
 Who says what?
 To whom?
 How?
 Why?
 With what effect?
 Units of Analysis in CA
 The source: Who says it?
 Candidates, companies, advertisers, networks, newspapers etc.
 The statement: What is said?
 Articles, speeches, commercials, editorials, images, etc.
 Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Analysis
 Strengths
 Economical: cheap and fast
 Reliable: can be checked, corrected
 Unobtrusive: no researcher effect
 Historical focus: can cover long periods of time efficiently
 Weaknesses
 Limited to what is recorded
 Validity: May be subjective, nonscientific
 APPLICATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS
 Content analysis has wide applicability in educational research.
 Content analysis can give researchers insights into problems that they can test by
more direct methods.
 There are several reasons to do a content analysis: to obtain descriptive
 information of one kind or another; to analyze observational and interview data; to
test hypotheses; to check other research findings; and/or to obtain information useful
in dealing with educational problems.