Computer

Fundamentals and
Programming in C
2nd Edition
Reema Thareja

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

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 COMPUTER
• A computer is an electronic device that is designed to accept data,
perform the required mathematical and logical operations at high
speed, and output the result
• A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs
tasks according to a set of instructions (called programs).
• Computers can perform a wide variety of functions, from simple calculations to
complex operations, such as controlling machinery or analyzing large sets of data.

• A computer is a machine that takes instructions and performs computations

based on those instructions.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
•Speed : Can perform millions of operations per second. Speed of the
computers is usually specified in nanoseconds or picoseconds.
•Accuracy: Output generated by the computer depends on given
instructions and input data. It always gives correct result provided correct
data and instructions are given.
•Automatic: Computers can perform task without any human intervention.
User needs to assign the tasks to the computer after which it automatically
executes the program instructions.
•Diligence: Computers never get tired of repetitive task. It can work
continually without creating errors.
•Versatile: Computers are flexible. Computers are used in various field and
can perform multiple tasks of different nature at the same time.

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• Memory: Computers have memory to store data and program.
Computer have primary as well as secondary memory.
• No I.Q.: Computers do not having any decision making capabilities of
their own. They need guidance to perform various tasks.
• Economical: Using computers reduces man power requirements and
leads to an elegant and efficient way of performing various tasks.
Computers save time, energy and money. Compared to other systems,
computers can do more work in less time.

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 STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT
All digital computers are based on the principle of stored program
concept, which was introduced by Sir John von Neumann in the late
1940s. A stored program architecture is a fundamental computer
architecture wherein the computer executes the instructions that
are stored in its memory.
Key characteristic features :
•Before any data is processed, instructions are read into memory.
•Instructions are stored in the computer’s memory for execution.
•Instructions are stored in binary form (using binary numbers—only 0s and 1s).
•Processing starts with the first instruction in the program, which is copied into a
control unit circuit. The control unit executes the instructions.
•Instructions written by the users are performed sequentially until there is a
break in the current flow.
•Input / Output and processing operations are performed simultaneously. While
data is being read/written, the central processing unit (CPU) executes another
program in the memory that is ready for execution.
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Types of Stored Program Computers:

•Von Neumann Architecture:

•Harvard Architecture:

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 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
The word generation means the state of improvement in the product
development process. Similarly, computer generation refers to the different
advancements of new computer technology.

First Generation (1942-1955) - Vacuum Tubes

The first generation computers used very large number of vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are prime examples of first-generation computing

devices.

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Advantages: Fastest calculating device of their time
Disadvantages:
1. Dissipate a lot of heat
2. Consume a lot of electricity
3. Very bulky in size
4. Frequently down due to hardware failures.
5. Needed constant maintenance because of low mean time between failures
6. Limited commercial use because these computers were difficult to program
7. Very expensive

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Second Generation (1955-1964) Transistors

•The second generation computers were manufactured using transistors.

•While first generation computers were programmed using machine language,
second generation computers moved towards symbolic, or assembly languages,
which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
•At this time, high-level programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL
and SNOBOL were also being developed.
•Second generation computers were first to store instructions in memory,
which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
•Second generation computers were first developed for the atomic energy
industry.

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Advantages:
1. Consumed less electricity and thus dissipated less heat as compared to first
generation computers
2. Faster, cheaper smaller and more reliable than first generation computers
3. Could be programmed using assembly language and high level languages
4. Had faster primary memory and a larger secondary memory
Disadvantages:
1. Second generation computers were manufactured using transistors that had to
be assembled manually. This made commercial production of computers difficult
and expensive.

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Third Generation (1964-1975) Integrated Circuits

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers.
• These computers had few megabytes of main memory and magnetic disks which
could store few tens of megabytes of data per disk drive.
• High level programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN were standardized
by ANSI
• Some more high level programming languages like PL/I PASCAL and BASIC were
introduced at this time.
• Third generation computers were the first to implement time sharing operating
systems.
• Input to these computers could now be provided using keyboards and mouse.

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Advantages:
1.Faster than second generation computers and could perform 1 million transactions per
second.
2. Smaller, cheaper and more reliable than their predecessors
3. These computers had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage
4. Widely used for scientific as well as business applications
5. During this generation of computers, standardization of existing high level
languages and invention of new high level languages was done
6. Had time sharing operating system which allowed interactive use of computer by one
or more users simultaneously thereby improving the productivity of the users.

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Fourth Generation (1975-1989) Microprocessors
•The microprocessor started the fourth generation of computers with thousands of
integrated circuits built onto a single silicon chip.
• Semi-conductor memories were used which were very fast, even the hard disks
became cheaper, smaller in size and larger in capacity.
• For input, floppy disks (in addition to magnetic tapes) were used to port data and
programs from one computer to another.
• During this period many new operating systems were developed like MS-DOS MS-
Windows UNIX and Apple’s proprietary operating system.
•Development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
•In this period, several word processing packages, spreadsheet packages and graphics
packages were introduced.

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Advantages:
1. Smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable
2. Consumed less electricity and therefore dissipated less heat
3. Had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage
4. Could be used as general purpose computers.
5. GUIs enabled people to learn to work with computers very easily. So the use
of computers in both office and home became widespread.
6. Networks allowed sharing of resources thereby efficient utilization of
computer hardware and software

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Fifth Generation (1989-Present)

•The fifth generation computers are completely based on a new concept of

artificial intelligence.
• Although such computers are still in development, there are certain
applications like voice recognition which is widely being used today.
•In the fifth generation of computers the aim is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.
• The two most common are LISP and Prolog.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed,
amount of data that they can hold, and price.

Classification of Computers

Super Computers Mainframe Computers Mini Computers Micro Computers

Dumb Intelligent
Terminal Terminal

Desktop Laptop Workstation Network Handheld

Smartphones Tablet PCs

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 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
• Word Processing • Sports
• Internet • Travel and Tourism
• Digital Audio or Video Composition Simulation
• Desktop Publishing • Astronomy
• e-Business • Education
• Bioinformatics • Industry and Engineering
• Health care • Robotics
• GIS and Remote Sensing • Decision Support Systems
• Meteorology • Expert Systems
• Multimedia and Animation
• Legal System
• Retail Business

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 Basic Organization of a Computer
A computer is an electronic device which basically performs five major operations
which includes:
1) accepts data or instructions (input)
2) stores data
3) process data
4) displays results (output) and
5) controls and co-ordinates all operations inside a computer
Data and INPUT STORAGE OUTPUT Results
instructions

CPU
CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC Flow of data and instructions

LOGIC UNIT
Control exercised by control unit

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