Dept of EEE

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 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS
Module - 1
Introduction to Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS): Overview, Vedic
Corpus, Philosophy, Character scope and importance, traditional
knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge, traditional knowledge vs.
western knowledge.

Dept of EEE
 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Dept of EEE

There is nothing as purifying as knowledge

 Introduction

Dept of EEE

Brihadishvara Temple, called Rajarajesvaram, built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010.

This is one of the earliest granite temples in the world. Around 60,000 tons of
granite is said to be used to build the temple. It has one of the tallest VimĀnas
(temple tower) and its Kumbhakam (the structure on the top) weight
approximately 80 tons.
 Introduction
• The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) is a vast and diverse
repository of wisdom, encompassing a wide range of disciplines
that have developed over millennia.

• Rooted in the unique cultural, philosophical, and intellectual

traditions of India, IKS offers a holistic approach to understanding
the world, integrating spiritual, intellectual, and practical
Dept of EEE knowledge.

• IKS refers to the collective wisdom, scientific practices,

philosophical insights, and cultural achievements that have
evolved in India over thousands of years.

• These systems encompass a wide range of fields, including

philosophy, science, technology, arts, and social sciences,
reflecting the intricate interplay between thought & practice.
 Introduction
• Indian Knowledge System is a generic phrase that covers
practically everything about India. The term IKS has 3 words in it.
The meaning of IKS can be better understood if these three
phrases can be analysed separately.

• INDIAN
 By this term, it is meant the indigenous sources of knowledge
Dept of EEE generated by the Indian society.
 The current political formation called ‘India’ is of recent
origin. It does not qualify to be called ‘Indian’.
 The term ‘Indian’ points to the undivided Indian subcontinent
(akhaņda bhĀrata).
 We mean the geographical area spanning from Burma on the
east to modern-day Afghanistan in the west, and Himalayas in
the north to the Indian ocean in the south.
 Introduction
 This region has common cultural, literary, and social practices,
and has witnessed a continuous exchange of people, and
ideas among them throughout the history of undivided India.
 A second aspect of this is only such knowledge synthesized,
codified, and made available by the ‘Indians’ is considered
Indian knowledge.
 This implies that they ought to have been part of the Indian
Dept of EEE subcontinent, born and lived there, and are part of the
knowledge system in an integral fashion.
 This is especially important because India witnessed several
foreign travellers who visited its universities, stayed for some
time and wrote about the country, the knowledge, and
cultural practices. These cannot be considered as IKS itself, but
can be considered as ‘literature about IKS’.
 Introduction
• KNOWLEDGE
 Knowledge primarily arises in the form of the wisdom of the
knowledge seekers.
 It is obtained by the insights gained by personal experiences
with life situations, facing problems, and coming up with
means of solving them.
 At other times, one obtains knowledge by means of intense
Dept of EEE observation of events, experimentation, conjecturing, and
analysis.
 Knowledge may or may not be converted into literary format.
 The tacit knowledge can be preserved and transmitted
through an oral tradition without loss.
 While both these forms of knowledge are equally important
and valuable, it is impossible to formally study knowledge
transmitted through oral traditions.
 Introduction
 Therefore, for the scope of this course, ‘knowledge’ means a
formal repository of knowledge available in literary sources.
 The tacit knowledge gained by the seeker is eventually
transmitted systematically in the form of some ‘explicit’
knowledge.
 This happens by the way of proposing a new theory,
framework, or literary work.
Dept of EEE  Furthermore, knowledge pervades spiritual, religious, and
social (day-to-day issues) domains.
 Thus, we can summarize ‘knowledge’ as emanating from the
wisdom and insights arising out of deep experiences,
observation, experimentation, and analysis and validated,
improved, and augmented further.
 Introduction
• SYSTEM
 A system, in IKS, is a structured methodology and a
classification scheme to access the available corpus of
knowledge.
 It should be accessed in any manner, depending on the
interest, purpose, and capacity of the seeker.
 Since knowledge is very vast, it may throw a challenge to the
Dept of EEE seeker who may e clueless as to where and how to begin and
proceed.
 Therefore, the available knowledge needs to be collected,
grouped, and arranged logically.
 Codification and classification of available knowledge using a
definite framework would constitute one dimension of the
word ‘system’ in IKS
 Introduction
 The other important requirement is the interconnection
between the part of the knowledge in the classification
framework.
 The framework should also provide some logical relationship
between the different parts of the proposed framework.
 This helps easy understanding of the overall contribution of
the knowledge, and how the different components of the
Dept of EEE knowledge complement each other.
 Introduction

Dept of EEE

Figure 1: The IKS Corpus - A classification Framework

 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Dept of EEE The Characteristics of IKS

 Characteristics of IKS
• The IKS has several distinctive characteristics that set it apart
from other knowledge systems. These features highlight the
unique contributions of Indian civilization to global knowledge
and the enduring relevance of these traditions.

• The characteristic Features of IKS are:

1. Holistic and Intuitive Approach
Dept of EEE 2. Dharma – Centric Worldview
3. Emphasis on self – realization and Inner Knowledge
4. Sustainability and Environmental Consciousness
5. Oral tradition and Textual Transmission
6. Diversity and Pluralism
7. Innovation and Adaptability
8. Focus on Ethical and Moral Values
 Characteristics of IKS
1. Holistic and intuitive approach
• In IKS, the knowledge is not classified into isolated disciplines.
Instead, it is integrative, where various fields of study are
interlinked and complementary. For example, the ancient
system of Indian medicine (Ayurveda) integrates the
knowledge of human body with the mind, spirit, and the
environment.
Dept of EEE • It also extends to other areas such as mathematics, arts,
architecture, and government.
• Examples include
i. Mathematical approaches by Aryabhata and
Brahmagupta are connected with astronomy and
philosophy
ii. Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ integrates statecraft, economics,
warfare and philosophy into a unified system
 Characteristics of IKS
2. Dharma – centric overview
• Dharma is the righteousness, duty or law that is central to IKS.
• It is the guiding principle that penetrates every aspect of life
in Indian thought.
• It is not merely a religious or ethical concept but a
fundamental law of nature.

Dept of EEE
 Characteristics of IKS
2. Dharma – centric overview
• Dharma provides the moral and ethical framework within
which the knowledge is pursued, applied, and transmitted.
• In the IKS, the pursuit of knowledge is not just an intellectual
exercise, but a means of living in the harmony with the
universe.
• Knowledge must align with Dharma, which ensures that it is
Dept of EEE used for the benefit of the society and the world at large.
• This dharma – centric – overview has influenced various fields
of knowledge from medicine to governance to education.
• For instance, in Ayurveda, health is not just the absence of
disease, but a state of balance in accordance with Dharma,
where the individual is in harmony with the environment,
society, and self.
 Characteristics of IKS
3. Emphasis on self – realization and inner - knowledge
• The ultimate purpose of knowledge, according to Indian
Theist Philosophical systems, is not merely the accumulation
of facts or technical expertise, but the realization of the true
nature of the Self (Ātman) and its relationship with the
universal consciousness (Brahman).
• This is evident in the Upanishads.
Dept of EEE • The IKS integrates the knowledge of the physical world
(exterior knowledge) with the knowledge of the Self (inner
knowledge).
• Indian disciplines such as Yoga, Philosophy, Logic, Reasoning
are used to understand the nature of reality and the Self.
• This emphasis on the Self does not negate the value of
empirical knowledge; rather, it complements it by providing
deeper, metaphysical understanding of thee existence.
 Characteristics of IKS
4. Sustainability and environment consciousness
• These are intrinsic to the IKS.
• Ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas, the Upanishads, and
Puranas, reflect a deep respect for nature and empathize
living in harmony with the natural world.
• The concept of nature s revered as a manifestation of the
divine.
Dept of EEE • For example, the Indian science of Vastu Shastra deals with
architecture and town planning emphasizes on aligning
human dwellings with natural forces to create a harmony.
• Similarly, Krishi shastra (agriculture) advocates sustainable
methods of farming that preserve the fertility of the soil and
maintain ecological balance.
• Ayurveda, the medical science, also promotes the use of
natural resources in a way that does not deplete them.
 Characteristics of IKS
5. Oral tradition & textual transmission
• Both oral and textual transmission are intrinsic to the IKS.
• The Vedas are the oldest texts in the world, and were
transmitted through hundreds of generations by oral means
(Shruthis and Smritis) through the lineage of a Realized Soul
(i.e., the Guru), before eventually being recorded as texts.
• Textual transmission of IKS include scriptures (Vedas, Puranas)
Dept of EEE and scientific and technical treaties (Sushrutha Samhitha for
Medicine, Aryabhateeya for Mathematics, Arthashastra for
Governance.
• These have been instrumental in preserving the vast body of
knowledge of the IKS.
• The combination of both these transmissions reflects the
flexibility and adaptability of the IKS, and the communal
knowledge in India (shared and accessible to all).
 Characteristics of IKS
6. Diversity and Pluralism
• The IKS is marked by its diversity and pluralism. India has
become home to a multitude of philosophical, religious, and
cultural traditions, each contributing to the overall body of
knowledge.
• The diversity is reflected in the variety of schools of thought in
Indian Philosophy such as Vedanta (Advaita, Vishshitadvaita,
Dept of EEE Dvaita, etc.), Budhism, Jainism, and Nyaaya. Each school
offers unique perspective on fundamental questions of
existence, knowledge, and ethics.
• This pluralism extends to other fields of IKS as well. For
example, Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani are some different
medical healing systems that have existed and influenced
each other.
 Characteristics of IKS
6. Diversity and Pluralism
• The diversity of IKS reflects the inclusive and accommodating
nature of Indian civilization.
• Rather than imposing a single, unified system of thought, IK
traditions have embraced multiplicity and dialogue between
different perspectives.
• This pluralism has contributed to the richness and resilience
Dept of EEE of the IKS over the millennia.
 Characteristics of IKS
7. Innovation and adaptability
• Despite being rooted in ancient traditions, the IKS has shown
remarkable innovation and adaptability.
• Indian scholars and practitioners have constantly refined and
expanded their knowledge, adapting it to charging
circumstances and new challenges.
• This spirit of innovation is evident in fields such as
Dept of EEE mathematics, where Indian mathematicians made
groundbreaking contributions to Algebra, Calculus, and
Trigonometry.
• IK traditions have also been open to influences from other
cultures. For instance, the effect of Persian and Arab cultures
gave the field of Unani medicine.
• This adaptability has allowed IKS to be relevant and vital to
this day, in spite of historical changes.
 Characteristics of IKS
8. Focus on ethical and moral values
• Ethics and morality are central to the IKS.
• Cultivating virtues such as compassion, honesty, and self –
discipline is all an integral part of the IKS along with acquiring
technical knowledge.
• Texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, Dharma Shastra and
Upanishads emphasize the importance of ethical conduct in
Dept of EEE all aspects of life including education, governance, and
personal relationships.
• Indian medicine system of Ayurveda clearly states that the
paramount duty of physician is the holistic healing of the
individual.
 Introduction
Repository of IKS

Dept of EEE
 Introduction

Dept of EEE
 Introduction

Dept of EEE
 Introduction

Dept of EEE
 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Dept of EEE The Importance of IKS

 The Importance of IKS
• The IKS represents a vast, diverse, and holistic body of knowledge
that has evolved over a millennia.
• However, this rich tradition has been significantly impacted by
various historical factors, particularly the imposition of the British
colonial education policies, which led to the marginalization of
indigenous knowledge systems.
• The most notable of these policies were introduced by Thomas
Dept of EEE Babington Macaulay, whose educational policies radically altered
the trajectory of IKS and cultural values.
• His famous “Minute on Indian Education” in 1835 became the
cornerstone of British educational reform in India.
• It was a document that proposed the establishment of an
education system in India that would prioritize English and
replace all indigenous knowledge systems.
 The Importance of IKS

Dept of EEE
 The Importance of IKS

Dept of EEE
 The Importance of IKS
• Key points of Macaulay’s Minute include:
1. Emphasis on English education
Macaulay argued that English was superior and it was
essential to educate Indians in English to create a class on
“Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, opinions, in
morals, and in intellect.”
2. Neglect of indigenous knowledge
Dept of EEE He dismissed Indian Literature and Sciences are being of little
value when compared to Western knowledge. He famously
remarked that “a single shelf of a good European library was
worth the whole native literature of India & Arabia.”
3. Utilitarian approach
He regarded education as a means of creating workforce to
assist the British administration, instead of holistic
development.
 The Importance of IKS
• Impact of Macaulay’s Minute include:
1. Marginalization of indigenous knowledge systems
Indigenous languages such as Sanskrit, Persian, and regional
languages declined, which led to a cascading effect on IKS.
2. Cultural alienation
The policy fostered a sense of cultural inferiority among
Indians. Indian literature, philosophy, science, and art, which
Dept of EEE were preserved for centuries through the Gurukul system
were sidelined in favour of Western curricula, which created
a disconnection between Indians and their cultural heritage.
3. Creation of a colonial elite
His system catered to the urban and upper class, leaving the
rural population without access to education. As a result, it
only produced educated individuals who were suited to
serve the colonial state than to continue to the intellectual
and cultural development of India.
 The Importance of IKS
4. Erosion of traditional educational institutions
Traditional institutions such as Gurukulas and Pathshalas,
which had been the pillars of indigenous education, were
systematically undermined by the colonial state. The
disconnect from indigenous educational practices led to a
decline in the continuity of cultural and scientific traditions.
5. Long-term consequences
Dept of EEE The main effect is that English and its proficiency remains a
marker of social status in present day India. In addition, the
neglect of indigenous knowledge system created a ga in the
cultural consciousness of modern India. Most of us are
unaware of the rich intellectual traditions of our ancestors,
which has implications for national identity and self-esteem.
 The Importance of IKS
• The need for revisiting IKS are:
1. Restoring cultural identity and pride
It is necessary to restore a sense of cultural identity and
pride among Indians. The cultural legacy should be restored
and a sense of pride in the intellectual achievements must
be fostered.
2. Promoting holistic education
Dept of EEE Present education system of Macaulay only focuses on
technical know-how. However, IKS focuses on the holistic
development that includes nurturing the student’s character,
values, and ethical conduct in addition to imparting
knowledge. It includes the development of the whole
person, including physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.
Therefore, IKS gives a well-rounded approach which is very
relevant in today’s world.
 The Importance of IKS
• The need for revisiting IKS are:
3. Revitalizing indigenous knowledge for contemporary
challenges
The India traditional systems contain a wealth of knowledge
that can be revitalized to address contemporary challenges
in the fields such as medicine, agriculture, environmental
sustainability, and governance. For example, the present day
Dept of EEE medicine focuses only on treating diseases, while Ayurveda
also focuses on preventing them.
4. Providing linguistic and cultural diversity
Linguistic diversity is a part of Indian cultural heritage, and
preserving this diversity is essential for maintaining the
richness of IKS. The knowledge of IKS is preserved in
languages such as Sanskrit, and it can be preserved only with
learning and usage of language.
 The Scope of IKS
• Starting from the Vedic period, the IKS include diverse fields such
as philosophy, mathematics astronomy, medicine, architecture,
music, and governance.
• The scope of IKS is universal, encompassing both micro-level
knowledge (personal well-being), ethics, and individual practices)
and macro-level knowledge (cosmology, statecraft, and social
organization).
Dept of EEE 1. Mirco-level knowledge
a) Personal well-being
i. Ayurveda and personal health
ii. Yoga and mental well-being
iii. Ethics and philosophy
2. Macro-level knowledge
a) Cosmology and astronomy
b) Statecraft and governance
c) Social organization and cultural practices
 The Scope of IKS
• Ayurveda and personal health
 Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, is one of
the most comprehensive system in healing that addresses the
micro-level needs of individuals.
 Ayurveda emphasizes on preventive care, diet, lifestyle, and
completely natural remedies.
 The treatment is usually personalized and depends on the
Dept of EEE individual’s constitution (prakriti) and the balance of the three
doshas (Vaata, pitta and kapha)
 Ayurveda also integrates ethical considerations into health
practices. It promotes the truth that good health is not just
about physical well-being, but also about living in harmony
with nature and society.
 The ethical dimension reflects the holistic nature of IKS.
 The Scope of IKS
• Yoga and mental well-being
 Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine, is one of
the most comprehensive system in healing that addresses the
micro-level needs of individuals.
 Ayurveda emphasizes on preventive care, diet, lifestyle, and
completely natural remedies.
 The treatment is usually personalized and depends on the
Dept of EEE individual’s constitution (prakriti) and the balance of the three
doshas (Vaata, pitta and kapha)
 Ayurveda also integrates ethical considerations into health
practices. It promotes the truth that good health is not just
about physical well-being, but also about living in harmony
with nature and society.
 The ethical dimension reflects the holistic nature of IKS.
 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Dept of EEE The Vedic Corpus

 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Dept of EEE
 The Vedic Corpus
• The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘Vid’ (विद्)
which means ‘to know’.
• The word ‘Veda’ can be derived from five verbal roots. These
mean to exist, to know, to discriminate, to obtain, and to make
known. They are:
1. विद्यते = अस्ति इति वेदः (विद सत्तायम्) = that
which exists forever
Dept of EEE 2. विदन्ति = जानन्ति धर्मादीन् अर्थान् अनेन इति
वेदः (विद ज्ञाने) = that through which one knows things
such as Dharma
3. विन्दते = विचारयन्ति एनम् इति वेदः (विद विचारणे)
= that which people think about
4. विन्दति = प्रप्नोति अनेन इति वेदः (विदॣ लाभे) =
that through which we obtain Dharma etc.
5. वेदयति = ज्ञापयति इति वेदः (वेद
चेतनाख्याननिवासेषु) = that which makes things like
 The Vedic Corpus
• The Vedas are not merely scriptures, but are the foundation of
human culture and civilization.
• While the actual dating of the Vedas has been a subject of debate
for several years, the latest date attributed by many modern
researchers falls a few millennia before the common era.
• Vedas are a unique repository of knowledge that distinguishes
itself from other forms of knowledge. Normally, we attribute
Dept of EEE knowledge to a person. For example, Calculus is attributed to
Newton or Leibniz.
• However, the Vedic corpus (corpus is a collection of written or
spoken material) is generally understood as a non – human
source, and is called Apaurusheya.
• Vedas are revealed to the Rishis from time to time in their state
of deep contemplation of the Supreme. That is why it is
apaurusheya.
 The Vedic Corpus
• Every Mantra of a Veda has an associated Rishi. It does not mean
that the Rishis are the authors of the Mantra. It means that the
Rishi discovered the Mantra during their state of deep
contemplation of the Supreme.
• Veda is transmitted orally and preserved intact from time
immemorial.
• Vedas have a well – developed system of phonetics that has
Dept of EEE ensured its preservation.
• Vedas are recognized by UNESCO as heritage.
• Since Vedas are preserved and transmitted through oral tradition,
they are referred to as ‘Shruthi’ i.e., ‘what is heard’.
• The Samhitas and the four Vedas are part of the Shruti.
 The Vedic Corpus
• ‘Smriti’ is a Sanskrit word that translates to remember. It is a class
of Hindu sacred literature.
• Although Smriti Vedic literature develops, interprets, and codifies
Vedic philosophy, it is regarded as less authoritative than Vedic
Shruti literature because it is a descendant.
• However, Smriti scriptures are more widely known to modern
Hindus.
Dept of EEE • The texts include the Kalpa-sutras, significant religious manuals;
the Puranas, collections of prehistoric myth, tradition, and
history; and the Ramayana and Mahabharata, two of India's
greatest epics.
• Over time, the term "Smriti" came to be used specifically in
reference to works dealing with social behavior and the law, such
as the renowned Manu-smriti (Laws of Manu).
 The Vedic Corpus

Dept of EEE
 The Vedic Corpus

Dept of EEE
 The Vedic Corpus
• Vedas have 6 parts or limbs. These are known as Vedaangaas
(वेदांगाः). The six Vedaanagaas are:
1. Vyaakarana: Sanskrit
Grammar (like face)
2. Shiksha: Pronunciation of
Veda Mantras (like nose)
3. Jyotisha: Astrology and
Dept of EEE Astronomy (Like eyes)
4. Nirukta: Vedic dictionary
(like ears)
5. Chanda: Poetic Stanzas
(like legs)
6. Kalpa: Manual of rituals
(like hands)
 The Vedic Corpus
• The seers concluded that the purpose of human life is to realise
oneself, rid oneself of limitations and constraints, and experience
bliss by knowing the Supreme (truth).
• To achieve this, a path of evolution is proposed.
Stage - 1
• In the early stages of life, each one of us is supposed to engage in
world of activities, contribute actively, and enjoy a secured living.
Dept of EEE For this the Rishis proposed the Karma KaanDa (कर्म काण्डः).
• It nudges an individual to obtain a purity of mind as we engage
with the world.
• Since the Vedic living was centrally focused on Yajna, several
instructions and operating frameworks pertaining to the Yajna for
the part of Karma KaanDa.
 The Vedic Corpus
Stage - 2
• As the individual progresses, there is a need for single –
pointedness of the mind through contemplation and focus.
• In the Vedic corpus, the Upaasanaa kaanDa (उपासना काण्डः)
provides these ideas for an individual.
• Upaasana literally means ‘sitting near’ (upa + aasana).
• It is a method od developing a certain attitude to worship.
Dept of EEE • In simple terms, Upaasanaa refers to a state of concentration
where ‘whatever is meditated upon’ is completely identified and
absorbed with Self (Consciousness or Aatman; not the body).
• It provides a systematic method and an opportunity to harness the
inherently wandering mind towards a defined goal through
contemplation.
• Several meditation practices are proposed in the Vedas as a part of
Upaasanaa. The end goal is a purified and sharpened mind.
 The Vedic Corpus
• A purified and sharpened mind becomes a storehouse of energy,
and it enables an individual to perform effectively both in the
professional life as well as in his meditative practices.
• At a later stage of life, this is an important requirement for every
individual.
Stage - 3
• The other part of the Veda addresses the issue of self – realization,
Dept of EEE • The Jnaana Kaanda (ज्ञान काण्डः) opens the mind of an
individual to its limits and facilitates much deeper inquiry about
oneself.
 The Vedic Corpus
• English language – based work on the Vedas in India is very minimal.
• The Western efforts seem to have taken a main place in modern –
day English language – based sources on Vedas and their
interpretations.
• The Western approach to the study of the Vedic corpus has primarily
been in extracting the archival material and publishing them afresh,
with English commentary.
Dept of EEE • It is mostly viewed as an intellectual and linguistic exercise.
• They usually overlook the experiences, native traditions, traditional
and cultural dimensions that are required to understand and grasp
the knowledge.
• In addition, the Western works generally ascribe to the Aryan
invasion theory and use that as one of the main lenses to study the
Vedic scriptures. One needs to be aware of these aspects while
dealing with such works.
 The Vedic Corpus
• The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:

1. Samhitaa
2. Braahmana
3. Aranyaka
4. Upanishads

Dept of EEE
 The Vedic Corpus
• The Vedas are to be studied under the guidance of an able Guru.
Hence, the IKS included the Gurukula System.

Dept of EEE
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Vedas (Samhitaas)
• The Vedas are the earliest IKS texts.
• According to scholars, the Rig Veda is the first Hindu text.
• It is believed that all Vedas were together one, and Sage Krishna
Dwaipayana (popularly known as Veda Vyasa) classified them.
• He is traditionally regarded as the author of the epic Mahābhārata,
where he also plays a prominent role as a character.
Dept of EEE • He is also regarded by the Hindu traditions to be the compiler of the
mantras of the Vedas into four texts, as well as the author of the
eighteen Purāṇas and the Brahma Sutras.
• Vyasa is commonly known as "Vedvyasa" (Sanskrit: वेदव्यास,
Vedavyāsa) as he divided the single, eternal Veda into four separate
books—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
• These four Vedas are popularly known as ‘Samhitaas’. For example,
Rig Veda Samhita.
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Vedas (Samhitaas)
• Rig Veda Samhita has 10,552 mantras
• The Rishis who discovered these mantras are identified in the Súkta
itself.
• The súkta also indicates the Devata to whom the mantra is
addressed.
• The meter used to compose these mantras are also indicated. This
Dept of EEE meter is known as ‘Chandas’.
• Therefore, each Samhita mantra has a Rishi, a Devata and a
Chandas.
• For example, the Savitr Mantra (popularly known as the Gayatri
Mantra) from Rigveda (Mandala 3.62.10) has Vishwaamitra as the
Rishi, Savitr as the Devata and Gayatri as the Chandas
 The Vedic Corpus
Sl. Veda Composed Features
No. Name time period
1. Rig Veda 1700 BC • Rig Veda is the oldest and most
significant of the Vedas.
• It contains 1028 hymns in ten books
(known as mandalas) that are
dedicated to various gods. Indra,
Agni, Vishnu, Rudra, Varuna, and
Dept of EEE other early or "Vedic gods" are
among them.
• It also includes the well-known
Gayatri mantra and the Purusha
Shukta prayer.
• There are 25 women Rishis who
have composed hymns in Rigveda
 The Vedic Corpus

Dept of EEE

The Rig Veda Manuscript in Devanaagari

 The Vedic Corpus
Sl. Veda Name Composed Features
No. time period
2. Yajur Veda 1000 and • The Yajur Veda, the second of
800 BCE the four Vedas, is referred to
as the ritual book.
• It was written about one or
two centuries after the Rig
Dept of EEE
Veda was.
• Yajur signifies sacrifice.
• Yajur Veda is a priestly manual
for use when performing
Yajnas
• It is divided into ‘Krishna Yajur
Veda’ & ‘Shukla Yajur Veda’.
 The Vedic Corpus
Sl. Veda Name Composed Features
No. time period
3. Sama Veda 200 or 1000 • Sama Veda is composed on
BCE Chants and melodies that are
chanted during worship and
Yajna rituals.
• It is connected to the Rig Veda,
Dept of EEE
and is the shortest of the four
Vedas
 The Vedic Corpus
Sl. Veda Name Composed Features
No. time period
4. Atharvana 1000 to 800 • The fourth and the last Veda is
Veda BCE frequently referred to as the
Veda of magic formulae.
• Hymns, Mantras, and
incantations included in the
Dept of EEE
Atharvana Veda fall mostly
outside the purview of the
Yajnas.
 The Vedic Corpus

Dept of EEE

The Atharvana Veda Manuscript in Devanaagari

 The Vedic Corpus

Dept of EEE

Vedas and their Sub-components

 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: BrĀhmanas
• The word BrĀhmanas does NOT relate to the modern word
‘Brahmin’.
• The BrĀhmanas are a collection of knowledge mainly confined to
rituals and rites written in prose.
• They form a large portion of the Vedic repository.
• Typically, one or more BrĀhmanas are associated with each Veda
Dept of EEE and contain commentaries and explanatory notes pertaining to the
mantras used.
• They describe the different types of Yajnas with all the ritualistic
details.
• For example,
1. The Aithareya BrĀhmana describes the Soma sacrifice,
Agnihotra, etc.
2. The Kausītaki BrĀhmana proides details on food sacrifice, full –
moon sacrifices, and sacrifices of the seasons.
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: BrĀhmanas
3. In the Śatapatha BrĀhmana, the details of Agnicayana,
Aśwamedha Yajna, Upanayana, Svādhyāya are explained.
• Several ritualistic aspects are mentioned in the BrĀhmanas portion.
For example, in the Taittirīya BrĀhmana, the following instruction is
given:
 One must sprinkle water around (the food) while reciting the
Dept of EEE Mantra ऋतं त्वा सत्येन परिषिञ्चामि (rtan tvaa satyena
parishinchaami) in the evening, while the Mantra सत्यं
त्वर्तेन परिषिञ्चामि (satyam tavrtena parishinchaami)
has to be chanted in the morning.
• Saamaveda has the largest available collection of BrĀhmanas (eight).
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: BrĀhmanas
• The hymns of the Vedas are explained by the Braahmanas Vedic
literature.
• They are prose works that discuss in These the different sacrifices
(Yajnas) and rites as well as their esoteric significance.
• There are numerous Brahmanas in each Veda.
• The Shatapatha Brahmana, which advises "one hundred sacred
Dept of EEE paths," is annexed to the Sukla Yajurveda (Satapatha). Of all the
Brahmanas, it is the most comprehensive and significant.
• The Atharvaveda has the Gopatha Brahmana added to it.
• Actually, these Brahmanas are in-depth analyses of the numerous
hymns in Samhitas.
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Aranyakas
• The term Aranyaka translates to "the forest," often known as "forest
books,". They were primarily produced for hermits and students who
lived in the jungles
• The Aranyakas Vedic literature was subject to a rigorous code of
secrecy because it was thought that teaching the uninitiated their
contents would be dangerous.
Dept of EEE • They were subsequently to be researched in the forest. They discuss
symbolism and mysticism.
• They serve as the Upanishads' logical conclusion. They provide a link
between the Upanishads' promoted Jnaana marga (way of
knowledge) and the Brahmanas' exclusively concerned Karma marga
(way of deeds).
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Upanishads are also known as books of philosophy, Vedanta.
• The basic word Upanishad, which means "to sit down near
someone," is derived from the root Upani-shad.
• It represents a learner studying while seated at the guru's feet. The
term eventually came to refer to the hidden information that the
guru taught his chosen students.
Dept of EEE • The term is now frequently used to refer to the guru's hidden
teachings to his chosen students. The term is now used to refer to
intellectual and spiritual learning.
• The Upanishads are also known as Vedanta (the end of the Veda), in
part because they mark the end of the Vedic corpus and in part
because they make clear Veda's ultimate goal.
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
1. Rig Veda as 10 Upanishads. They are:
a) Aitareyopanishad (ऐतरेयोपनिषद्)
b) Aatmabodhopanishad (आत्मबोधोपनिषद्)
c) Akshamalikopanishad (अक्षमलिकोपनिषद्)
d) Bahvrichopanishad (बह्व्रिचोपनिषद्)
Dept of EEE e) Kaushitaki Upanishad (कौषितकि उपनिषद्)
f) Mudgalopanishad (मुद्गलोपनिषद्)
g) Nadabindopanishad (नादबिन्दोपनिषद्)
h) Nirvanopanishad (निर्वाणोपनिषद्)
i) Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad (सौभाग्य लक्ष्मि
उपनिषद्)
j) Tripura Upanishad (त्रिपुर उपनिषद्)
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
2. Shukla Yajur Veda as 19 Upanishads. They are:
i. Ishopanishad (ईशोपनिषद्)
ii. Brihadaranyakopanishad (बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्)
iii. Adhyatma Upanishad
iv. Advaya Taraka Upanishad
Dept of EEE v. Bhikshuka Upanishad
vi. Hamsa Upanishad
vii. Jabala Upanishad
viii. Mandala Brahmana Upanishad
ix. Mantrika Upanishad
x. Muktika Upanishad
contd…
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
2. Contd…..
xi. Niralamba Upanishad
xii. Paingala Upanishad
xiii. Paramahamsa Upanishad
xiv. Satyayaniya Upanishad
Dept of EEE xv. Subala Upanishad
xvi. Tara Sara Upanishad
xvii.Trisikhi Brahmana Upanishad
xviii.Turiyatita Avadhuta Upanishad
xix. Yajnavalkya Upanishad
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
3. Krishna Yajur Veda as 33 Upanishads. They are:
i. Akshi Upanishad
ii. Amrita Bindu Upanishad
iii. Amrita Nada Upanishad
iv. Avadhuta Upanishad
Dept of EEE v. Brahma Upanishad
vi. Brahma Vidya Upanishad
vii. Dakshinamurti Upanishad
viii. Dhyana-Bindu Upanishad
ix. Ekakshara Upanishad
x. Garbha Upanishad contd…
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
3. Contd…..
xi. Kaivalya Upanishad
xii. Kalagni Rudra Upanishad
xiii. Kali Santarana Upanishad
xiv. Katha Upanishad
Dept of EEE xv. Katharudra Upanishad
xvi. Kshurika Upanishad
xvii.Maha Narayana Upanishad
xviii.Narayana Upanishad
xix. Pancha Brahma Upanishad
xx. Pranagnihotra Upanishad
xxi. Rudra Hridaya Upanishad
xxii.Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
3. Contd…..
xxiii. Sariraka Upanishad
xxiv. Sarva Sara Upanishad
xxv. Skanda Upanishad
xxvi. Suka Rahasya Upanishad
Dept of EEE xxvii. Svetasvatara Upanishad
xxviii. Taittiriya Upanishad
xxix. Tejo Bindu Upanishad
xxx.Varaha Upanishad
xxxi. Yoga Kundalini Upanishad
xxxii. Yoga Sikha Upanishad
xxxiii. Yoga Tattva Upanishad
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
4. Sama Veda has 16 Upanishads. They are:
i. Aruni Upanishad
ii. Avyakta Upanishad
iii. Chandogya Upanishad
iv. Darsana Upanishad
Dept of EEE v. Jabali Upanishad
vi. Kena Upanishad
vii. Kundika Upanishad
viii. Maha Upanishad
ix. Maitrayani Upanishad
x. Maitreya Upanishad
contd…
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
4. Contd…..
xi. Rudraksha Jabala Upanishad
xii. Sannyasa Upanishad
xiii. Savitri Upanishad
xiv. Vajrasuchika Upanishad
Dept of EEE xv. Vasudeva Upanishad
xvi. Yoga Chudamani Upanishad
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
4. Atharvana Veda has 33 Upanishads. They are:
i. Annapurna Upanishad
ii. Atharvasikha Upanishad
iii. Atharvasiras Upanishad
iv. Atma Upanishad
Dept of EEE v. Bhasma Jabala Upanishad
vi. Bhavana Upanishad
vii. Brihad Jabala Upanishad
viii. Dattatreya Upanishad
ix. Devi Upanishad
x. Ganapati Upanishad
contd…
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
4. Contd…..
xi. Ganapati Upanishad
xii. Garuda Upanishad
xiii. Gopala Tapaniya Upanishad
xiv. Hayagriva Upanishad
Dept of EEE xv. Krishna Upanishad
xvi. Maha Vakya Upanishad
xvii.Mandukya Upanishad
xviii.Mundaka Upanishad
xix. Narada Parivrajaka Upanishad
xx. Nrisimha Poorva Upanishad
xxi. Nrisimha Uttara Upanishad
xxii.Para Brahma Upanishad
 The Vedic Corpus
Vedic Shruti Literature: Upanishads
• Presently available Upanishads are:
4. Contd…..
xxiii.Paramahamsa Upanishad
xxiv.Pasupata Brahmana Upanishad
xxv.Prasna Upanishad
xxvi.Rama Rahasya Upanishad
Dept of EEE xxvii.Rama Tapaniya Upanishad
xxviii.Sandilya Upanishad
xxix.Sarabha Upanishad
xxx.Sita Upanishad
xxxi.Surya Upanishad
xxxii.Tripadvibhuti Upanishad
xxxiii.Tripura Tapini Upanishad
 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Traditional knowledge
Dept of EEE
vis-a-vis
indigenous knowledge
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
• Traditional Knowledge (TK) vis-à-vis Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in
Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) means how they relate to and
interact with each other.
1. TK as a Broader Framework, IK as a Localized Expression
• Traditional Knowledge forms the larger knowledge system that has
evolved through classical texts (Vedas, Ayurveda, Yoga, etc.),
institutional learning, and philosophical discourse.
Dept of EEE • Indigenous Knowledge, on the other hand, is local, community-
specific, and more experiential, passed down within particular social
groups, especially among tribal and rural populations.
Example:
• Ayurveda (TK) provides a structured medical system based on the
three doshas (Vata, Pitta, Kapha).
• Tribal healing practices (IK) contribute unique regional herbal
remedies that later get incorporated into Ayurveda.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
2. Interdependence: IK Feeds into TK, TK Validates IK
• Indigenous Knowledge is often the source of Traditional Knowledge
because localized wisdom, over time, gets refined, documented, and
systematized into broader knowledge frameworks.
• Traditional Knowledge helps preserve and validate Indigenous
Knowledge by recording and formalizing it, preventing its loss due to
oral transmission.
Dept of EEE Example:
• The medicinal properties of neem, turmeric, and ashwagandha were
first known through Indigenous Knowledge (folk medicine).
• These were later codified into Ayurveda (Traditional Knowledge) and
today are even validated by modern science.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
3. Different Modes of Transmission, But Shared Wisdom
• TK is often text-based (written in Sanskrit, Tamil, or Pali scriptures).
• IK is orally transmitted through storytelling, folklore, and hands-on
learning.
• However, both are rooted in practical experience, emphasizing
sustainability, community well-being, and harmony with nature.
Example:
Dept of EEE • Agricultural texts like Krishi Parashara (TK) describe farming
techniques based on lunar cycles.
• Farmers in rural India (IK) follow ancestral wisdom of planting during
specific moon phases, often aligning with the same principles.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
4. Spiritual and Cultural Integration
• Both TK and IK integrate spiritual, ethical, and ecological dimensions
into knowledge systems.
• TK provides philosophical and metaphysical frameworks (e.g.,
Ayurveda’s concept of balance).
• IK expresses this knowledge in everyday practices (e.g., certain tribes
follow fasting rituals aligned with natural cycles).
Dept of EEE Example:
• Vastu Shastra (TK) lays down architectural principles based on
energy flow.
• Indigenous communities in Northeast India build homes in alignment
with wind patterns and river flows (IK), following similar underlying
principles.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
Conclusion
• Rather than opposing forces, Traditional Knowledge (TK) and
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) exist in a reciprocal, evolving relationship
within Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS).
• IK provides the raw experiential wisdom rooted in local culture.
• TK refines, structures, and sometimes expands IK, ensuring its
continuity.
Dept of EEE • Modern Science can further bridge the two, bringing validation
while respecting traditional wisdom.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
Traditional Knowledge (TK) vis-à-vis Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in
Electrical Engineering
• Even in the modern field of electrical engineering, we can find
parallels between Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Indigenous
Knowledge (IK), especially in the areas of energy generation,
electrical design, and sustainable technology. Let’s explore how
these knowledge systems relate to today’s engineering
Dept of EEE advancements.
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Electrical Engineering: Localized,
Sustainable Practices
• Indigenous Knowledge is often practical, sustainable, and adapted to
local environments. Many tribal and rural communities have long
relied on natural resources for energy needs, even before modern
electrical grids existed.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Electrical Engineering: Localized,
Sustainable Practices
• Examples of IK in Electrical Engineering:
 Wind & Water-Based Energy Generation – Traditional water
wheels, wind-driven grain mills, and river-based power systems
laid the foundation for modern hydro and wind power.
 Biomass & Solar Heating – Indigenous communities have used
Dept of EEE biomass burning for energy needs, which later contributed to the
development of biogas plants and solar thermal heating systems.
 Earthing & Natural Conductors – Ancient structures
incorporated materials like clay, copper, and salt for natural
grounding, principles still used in modern grounding techniques
for electrical safety.
 Eco-friendly Insulation – Use of banana leaves, jute, and
bamboo in traditional housing has influenced modern insulation
materials used in electrical wiring and sustainable construction.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Electrical Engineering: Localized,
Sustainable Practices
• IK provides sustainable and decentralized energy solutions, useful in
off-grid villages where mainstream electrical infrastructure is still
lacking.Principles of IK-based renewable energy help in developing
microgrids and distributed energy systems in rural electrification.

Dept of EEE
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
Traditional Knowledge (TK) in Electrical Engineering: Systematized
Theories & Formalized Concepts
• Traditional Knowledge, unlike Indigenous Knowledge, involves
structured and documented knowledge systems that have
influenced modern electrical theories and practices.
• Examples of TK in Electrical Engineering:
 Vedic Concepts of Energy & Vibration – Ancient texts like the
Dept of EEE Vedas describe concepts of prana (life energy) and sound
vibrations (Nada Yoga), which resonate with modern
electromagnetic wave theories and concepts like resonance in
electrical circuits.
 Vaastu Shastra & Electromagnetic Fields – Traditional Indian
architecture emphasizes directional alignment, which aligns with
modern Feng Shui & electromagnetic field management in
electrical engineering.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
Traditional Knowledge (TK) in Electrical Engineering: Systematized
Theories & Formalized Concepts
 Ancient Metallurgy & Conductivity – Advanced metallurgical
knowledge in India (e.g., the Iron Pillar of Delhi) contributed to
the development of high-conductivity materials used in modern
electrical wiring.
 Ayurvedic Bhasma & Semiconductor Research – Some studies
Dept of EEE explore the use of nano-sized metallic particles in Ayurvedic
Bhasma for potential applications in nanoelectronics and
semiconductor technology.
• Electromagnetic field theories and wave propagation have roots in
ancient Vedic concepts of energy and vibrations.
• Metallurgical advancements from traditional knowledge influence
modern electrical materials (e.g., superconductors and
nanomaterials).
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
TK & IK Together in Modern Renewable Energy and Smart Grids
• Today, electrical engineers are integrating both TK and IK into
sustainable energy solutions:
• Solar Power
 Vedic Concepts of Energy & Vibration –
1. IK: Tribal sun-tracking techniques used in agriculture.
2. TK: Solar thermal technology advancements.
Dept of EEE 3. Modern Link: AI-based solar tracking systems in
photovoltaics.
• Hydropower & Water-Based Electricity: –
1. IK: Traditional waterwheels in Himalayan villages.
2. TK: Principles of fluid dynamics and mechanical energy
conversion.
3. Modern Link: Micro-hydropower plants in rural
electrification projects.
 Traditional knowledge vis-a-vis indigenous knowledge
TK & IK Together in Modern Renewable Energy and Smart Grids
• Smart Grids & Decentralized Energy Solutions:
1. IK: Community-based energy-sharing practices in villages.
2. TK: Mathematical modeling & electrical grid optimization.
3. Modern Link: Blockchain-based energy trading &
decentralized smart grids.

Dept of EEE
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
• Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Western Knowledge (WK) represent
two distinct but sometimes complementary ways of understanding
and interacting with the world. Below is a comparison of their key
characteristics, strengths, and limitations.
• Strengths of Traditional Knowledge (TK):
1. Sustainability: Practices like organic farming, permaculture, and
holistic healing are eco-friendly and long-term solutions.
Dept of EEE 2. Deep Environmental Understanding: Indigenous people often have
intricate knowledge of ecosystems, climate patterns, and
biodiversity.
3. Holistic Approach: Integrates physical, emotional, spiritual, and
social well-being.
4. Community-Oriented: Encourages collective responsibility and
knowledge-sharing.
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
• Strengths of Western Knowledge (WK):
1. Scientific Rigor: Based on experimentation, peer review, and
reproducibility.
2. Technological Advancements: Has led to innovations in medicine,
engineering, and digital technology.
3. Universality: Standardized methods allow global application and
replication.
Dept of EEE 4. Fast Adaptation: Quickly incorporates new data, allowing rapid
advancements.
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
• Rather than seeing them as opposites, many fields now combine
Traditional Knowledge (TK) and Western Knowledge (WK) for more
effective solutions:
• Medicine:
1. TK: Ayurveda & traditional herbal medicine (e.g., turmeric for
inflammation, neem for antiseptic use).
2. WK: Pharmaceutical drugs & biotechnology (e.g., aspirin
Dept of EEE derived from willow bark, metformin from French lilac).
3. Integration: Ayurveda-inspired nutraceuticals, herbal-based
modern medicine.
• Agriculture & Sustainability:
1. TK: Organic farming, crop rotation, seed preservation
techniques.
2. WK: Genetically modified crops, precision agriculture, AI in
farming.
3. Integration: Agroecology, permaculture, climate-smart farming.
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
• Engineering & Energy:
1. TK: Water harvesting techniques (stepwells in India, qanats in
Persia).
2. WK: Modern hydropower, AI-driven irrigation systems.
3. Integration: Sustainable energy solutions (solar microgrids,
bioenergy).
• Architecture & Urban Planning:
Dept of EEE 1. TK: Vaastu Shastra, earthen homes, passive cooling techniques.
2. WK: Skyscrapers, modern urban planning, HVAC systems.
3. Integration: Green architecture, bioclimatic design, net-zero
buildings.
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
• Instead of framing Traditional Knowledge vs. Western Knowledge as
a conflict, a collaborative approach is the way forward.
• Traditional Knowledge offers sustainability, deep environmental
understanding, and holistic wisdom.
• Western Knowledge provides scientific validation, technological
innovation, and scalability.
• By combining both, we can create sustainable, innovative, and
Dept of EEE culturally relevant solutions for the future.
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
Feature Traditional Knowledge Western Knowledge (WK)
(TK)
Nature of Knowledge Holistic, spiritual, and Analytical, objective, and
community-based individual-driven
Transmission Oral traditions, Written records, formal
storytelling, education, peer-reviewed
apprenticeship research

Dept of EEE
Validation Based on generations of Empirical evidence,
experience and experiments, and
observation scientific method
Scope Localized, place-based, Universal, standardized,
and deeply connected to and generalizable
nature
Timeframe Evolved over centuries, Rapidly evolving through
slowly adapting to new discoveries and
changes technologies
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
Feature Traditional Knowledge Western Knowledge (WK)
(TK)
Approach to Problem- Integrated, considers Reductionist, breaking
Solving cultural and spiritual problems into smaller
aspects parts for analysis
Ownership Collective knowledge Often individualized or
shared within patented for commercial
communities use
Dept of EEE Examples Ayurveda, indigenous Modern medicine,
farming, folk medicine, industrial agriculture,
traditional architecture electrical engineering, AI
Flexibility Adaptive to local Standardized, but rapidly
conditions, evolves with changes with new
cultural needs discoveries
View on Nature Humans as part of nature, Humans as controllers of
interconnected with all nature, modifying
living beings environments for progress
 Traditional knowledge vs. Western knowledge.
Feature Traditional Western Knowledge
Knowledge (TK) (WK)
Technology Development Slow, based on necessity Fast-paced, driven by
and ecological balance industrial and economic
factors
Health & Medicine Focus on prevention, Focus on treatment,
herbal and natural pharmaceuticals and
remedies surgeries
Dept of EEE
Education System Apprenticeship, hands-on Formal institutions,
learning, guru-shishya degrees, research
tradition publications
 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Dept of EEE
Philosophical Schools
 Philosophical Schools
• Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two categories:
1. Āstika (Orthodox) Schools – Accept the authority of the Vedas.
2. Nāstika (Heterodox) Schools – Reject the authority of the
Vedas.

Dept of EEE
 Philosophical Schools (Darshanās)
• Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two categories:

1. Āstika (Orthodox) Schools – Accept the authority of the Vedas.

2. Nāstika (Heterodox) Schools – Reject the authority of the
Vedas.

• The 6 Āstika schools (shad-darshanās) form the core of traditional

Dept of EEE Indian philosophy. They are:
1
1️⃣ Nyāya (Logic & Epistemology)
2️⃣ Vaiśeṣika (Atomism & Metaphysics)
3
3️⃣ Sāṃkhya (Dualism & Cosmic Evolution)
4️⃣ Yoga (Discipline & Liberation)
5️⃣ Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (Rituals & Dharma)
6
6️⃣ Vedānta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Metaphysics
& Ultimate Reality)
 Philosophical Schools (Darshanās)
• The 3 Nāstika schools reject Vedic authority but provide significant
philosophical contributions. They are:
1️⃣ Cārvāka (Materialism)
2️⃣ Buddhism (Four Noble Truths &
Impermanence)
3
3️⃣ Jainism (Non-violence & Multiple
Perspectives)
Dept of EEE
 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

Dept of EEE
Āstika (Orthodox) Schools
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
• Nyāya Darshana is one of the six orthodox or classical schools of
Indian philosophy (shad-darshanās).
• It is primarily concerned with logic, epistemology (theory of
knowledge), and reasoning.
• The word "Nyāya" means "justice" or "rule," but in philosophy, it
refers to "logical reasoning" or "critical examination.“
• The Nyāya school was founded by Maharishi Gautama (Aksapada
Dept of EEE Gautama) around the 2nd century BCE.
• Its foundational text is the Nyāya Sutras. It systematically discuss
logic, inference, and the means of valid knowledge.
• The aphorisms are organized into five chapters, each having two
sections.
• The English translation can be accessed for free on
https://archive.org/details/NyayaSutra/mode/2up.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
• Nyāya darshana explains this world using 5 key concepts. They are:
1. Pramāṇa (Sources of Knowledge)
2. Padārtha (Categories of Reality)
3. Nyāya Syllogism (Five-Step Logical Argument)
4. Concept of God
5. Liberation (Moksha)
Pramāṇa (Sources of Knowledge)
Dept of EEE • Nyāya identifies four valid means of knowledge (Pramāṇas):
 Pratyakṣa (Perception) – Direct knowledge through the senses.
 Anumāna (Inference) – Indirect knowledge based on reasoning
(e.g., seeing smoke and inferring fire).
 Upamāna (Comparison/Analogy) – Gaining knowledge by
comparing with a known entity (e.g., the mango is as sour as a
lemon).
 Śabda (Verbal Testimony) – Knowledge obtained from reliable
sources, such as scriptures or a trustworthy person such as Guru.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
Padārtha (Categories of Reality)
• In Nyāya Darshana, Padārtha refers to the fundamental categories
of reality. The sixteen categories (Padārthas) serve as a framework
for understanding knowledge, logic, and debate.
• Nyāya classifies reality into sixteen categories (Padārthas), which
include:
 Pramāṇa (Means of knowledge)
Dept of EEE  Prameya (Objects of knowledge)
 Saṁśaya (Doubt)
 Prayojana (Purpose)
 Drishtānta (Example)
 Siddhānta (Conclusion)
 Tarka (Hypothetical reasoning)
 Vāda (Debate)
 Avayava (Components of an Argument)
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
 Nirṇaya (Final Decision)
 Jalpa (Debate with the Intent to Win)
 Vitaṇḍā (Criticism without Establishing an Alternative)
 Hetvābhāsa (Fallacies in Reasoning)
 Chala (Deceptive Argumentation)
 Jāti (False Counterargument)
 Nigrahasthāna (Grounds for Defeat in Debate)
Dept of EEE
• Here are examples of some key Padārtha types:
1. Pramāṇa (Means of Valid Knowledge)
 Example: You see a fire burning with your own eyes
(Pratyakṣa - Perception).
 Example: You infer that there is fire on a mountain because
you see smoke (Anumāna - Inference).
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
2. Prameya (Objects of Knowledge)
 Example: The existence of the soul (Ātman), God (Ishvara), or the
external world.
 Example: A pot, a tree, or a river—all are objects that can be
known.
3. Saṁśaya (Doubt)
 Example: Seeing a rope in dim light and wondering if it is a snake
Dept of EEE or just a rope.
4. Prayojana (Purpose)
 Example: Learning mathematics with the purpose of solving real-
life problems.
 Example: Taking medicine to cure a disease.
5. Drishtānta (Example)
 Example: "Where there is smoke, there is fire" (kitchen as an
example of this rule).
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
6. Siddhānta (Established Conclusion)
 Example: "The world is composed of five elements
(Panchabhūta)"—an accepted principle in many Indian
philosophies.
7. Avayava (Components of an Argument)
 Example: "There is fire on the mountain because there is smoke,
and where there is smoke, there is fire." (A structured five-step
Dept of EEE reasoning process).
8. Tarka (Hypothetical Reasoning)
 Example: If the soul did not exist, memory and karma could not
be explained—therefore, the soul must exist.
9. Nirṇaya (Final Decision)
 Example: After analyzing all arguments, concluding that the rope
is indeed just a rope, not a snake.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
10. Vāda (Debate)
 Example: A logical discussion between a teacher and student
about the existence of God, following proper reasoning.
11. Jalpa (Debate with the Intent to Win)
 Example: Two political opponents debating not for truth but to
prove their own point.
12. Vitaṇḍā (Criticism without Establishing an Alternative)
Dept of EEE  Example: A person only refuting others’ arguments without
providing any logical alternative or solution.
13. Hetvābhāsa (Fallacies in Reasoning)
 Example: "The sky is blue because it is made of water" (incorrect
reasoning).
14. Chala (Deceptive Argumentation)
 Example: A person twists the meaning of words to win a debate
rather than seeking truth.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
15. Jāti (False Counterargument)
 Example: Saying "All animals have four legs, so a chair must be
an animal" (wrong analogy).
16. Nigrahasthāna (Grounds for Defeat in Debate)
 Example: Contradicting one’s own statement during a discussion.
Nyāya Syllogism (Five-Step Logical Argument)
• Nyāya has a structured system for reasoning. The western logic is
Dept of EEE inherently derived from this system.
• The structure is:
i. Pratijñā (Proposition) – "There is fire on the mountain.“
ii. Hetu (Reason) – "Because there is smoke.
iii. Udāharaṇa (Example) – "Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, like
in a kitchen.
iv. Upanaya (Application) – "There is smoke on the mountain.”
v. Nigamana (Conclusion) – "Therefore, there is fire on the
mountain."
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
Concept of God
• Unlike some other schools, Nyāya accepts the existence of God
(Ishvara) as the ultimate cause of the universe.
• It argues for God's existence using logical reasoning, including the
cosmological argument (cause-effect principle).

Liberation (Moksha)
Dept of EEE • Nyāya believes that liberation (Moksha) is achieved through true
knowledge (Tattva Jñāna).
• Understanding the nature of the self (Ātman), the external world,
and God leads to liberation from suffering.
• Nyāya played a crucial role in the development of Indian logic and
epistemology.
• It influenced later philosophical traditions, including Buddhist logic,
Vedanta, and Navya-Nyāya (New Logic).
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana
• Nyāya Darshana is a school of thought that emphasizes rational
thinking, logic, and systematic reasoning as the path to knowledge
and liberation. It provides a structured framework for debate,
inquiry, and the pursuit of truth.

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 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Nyāya Darshana

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 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana
• Vaiśeṣika Darshana is one of the six classical schools of Indian
philosophy (Shad Darshanas). It is known for its emphasis on
metaphysics and natural philosophy, particularly the atomic theory
of the universe.

• The term "Vaiśeṣika" comes from the Sanskrit word Viśeṣa, meaning
"particularity" or "distinction", as it classifies reality into distinct
Dept of EEE fundamental categories.

• Founded by Maharishi Kaṇāda around the 2nd century BCE.

• The foundational text is the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, which explores the

ontology (nature of existence), physics, and metaphysics of the
universe.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana
• Vaiśeṣika darshana explains this world using 4 key concepts. They
are:
1. Padārtha (Categories of Reality)
2. Paramāṇu Vāda (Vaiśeṣika Atomism)
3. Concept of God
4. Liberation (Moksha)
Padārtha (Categories of Reality)
Dept of EEE • Vaiśeṣika classifies reality into seven fundamental categories
(Padārthas):stance)
i. Guṇa (Quality)
ii. Karma (Action/Movement)
iii. Sāmānya (Generality)
iv. Viśeṣa (Particularity)
v. Samavāya (Inherence)
vi. Abhāva (Non-existence)
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana
Padārtha Meaning Example

Dravya (Substance) The basic substances that Earth, water, fire, air, ether,
form the universe. time, space, soul, mind.
Guṇa (Quality) Properties that exist in Color, taste, sound, weight,
substances but not number, size.
independently.
Karma (Action/Movement) Activity that leads to Motion of an arrow,
change in substances. burning of wood.
Dept of EEE Sāmānya (Generality) Common traits shared by "Cow-ness" in all cows.
objects.
Viśeṣa (Particularity) The uniqueness of each No two atoms are identical.
entity.
Samavāya (Inherence) The inseparable relation A thread in cloth, heat in
between a whole and its fire.
parts.
Abhāva (Non-existence) The absence of something. The absence of a pot on a
table.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana
Paramāṇu Vāda (Vaiśeṣika Atomism)
• Vaiśeṣika proposes an atomic theory, stating that the universe is
made up of eternal, indivisible atoms (Paramāṇu).
• These atoms combine in different ways to form compounds and
objects.
• The combination of atoms is governed by Karma (motion) and
Adṛṣṭa (unseen forces, including past karma).
Dept of EEE Concept of God (Ishvara)
• Initially, Vaiśeṣika was atheistic and focused purely on natural laws.
• Later, Ishvara (God) was incorporated as the ultimate cause of
atomic motion and the moral lawgiver.
Liberation (Moksha)
• Liberation is attained through true knowledge of reality (Tattva-
Jñāna).
• Moksha is the realization of the self (Ātman) as distinct from the
body and material world, leading to the cessation of rebirth.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana
Paramāṇu Vāda (Vaiśeṣika Atomism)
• Vaiśeṣika proposes an atomic theory, stating that the universe is
made up of eternal, indivisible atoms (Paramāṇu).
• These atoms combine in different ways to form compounds and
objects.
• The combination of atoms is governed by Karma (motion) and
Adṛṣṭa (unseen forces, including past karma).
Dept of EEE Concept of God (Ishvara)
• Initially, Vaiśeṣika was atheistic and focused purely on natural laws.
• Later, Ishvara (God) was incorporated as the ultimate cause of
atomic motion and the moral lawgiver.
Liberation (Moksha)
• Liberation is attained through true knowledge of reality (Tattva-
Jñāna).
• Moksha is the realization of the self (Ātman) as distinct from the
body and material world, leading to the cessation of rebirth.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Vaiśeṣika Darshana

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 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya

Aspect Vaiśeṣika Nyāya

Founder Maharishi Kaṇāda Maharishi Gautama
Main Focus Metaphysics and Logic, epistemology, and
classification of reality reasoning
(ontology)
Core Text Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Nyāya Sūtra
Reality (Padārtha) Seven categories: Dravya Sixteen categories including
(substance), Guṇa (quality), Pramāṇa (valid knowledge),
Dept of EEE Karma (action), Sāmānya Prameya (object of
(generality), Viśeṣa knowledge), Saṁśaya
(particularity), Samavāya (doubt), etc.
(inherence), Abhāva (non-
existence)

Knowledge System Emphasizes the classification Focuses on how knowledge

of existence rather than is obtained and validated.
methods of knowing
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya
Aspect Vaiśeṣika Nyāya
Pramāṇas (Sources of Two: Perception Four: Perception (Pratyakṣa),
Knowledge) (Pratyakṣa) and Inference Inference (Anumāna),
(Anumāna) Comparison (Upamāna), Verbal
Testimony (Śabda)

Atomic Theory Believes in Paramāṇu Accepts the material world but

(atoms) as the ultimate does not emphasize atomic
building blocks of reality theory
Concept of God Initially atheistic, later Strong theistic approach, proving
Dept of EEE incorporated Ishvara (God) the existence of God through
as the guiding force of logic
atomic motion

Liberation (Moksha) Attained by understanding Attained by removing ignorance

reality (Tattva-jñāna) and through logical reasoning and
detachment from material valid knowledge
bondage

Relationship Later merged with Nyāya Complementary to Vaiśeṣika,

to form the Nyāya- focusing on logic rather than
Vaiśeṣika school ontology
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana
• Sāṃkhya Darshana is one of the six classical schools of Indian
philosophy (Shad Darshanas).
• It is known for its rational and dualistic approach to reality,
emphasizing the distinction between consciousness (Purusha) and
matter (Prakriti).
• It is one of the oldest philosophical systems, deeply influencing Yoga,
Vedanta, and Buddhism.
Dept of EEE • Founded by Maharishi Kapila (c. 7th century BCE or earlier).
• The primary text is the Sāṃkhya Kārikā by Ishvarakrishna (c. 4th
century CE).
• Bhagavad Gita and Mahabharata also contain Sāṃkhya concepts
(Chapter 2 of Bhagavd Gita is called “Sāṃkhya Yoga”).
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana
• Sāṃkhya darshana explains this world using 3 key concepts. They
are:
1. Dualism (Dvaita) – Purusha & Prakriti
2. The 25 Tattvas (Elements of Reality)
3. Liberation (Moksha) – Freedom from Prakriti
Purusha & Prakriti
• Sāṃkhya identifies reality into two fundamental categories
Dept of EEE (Dvaita):stance)
i. Purusha
ii. Prakriti
• Purusha (Consciousness, Soul, Observer)
 The eternal, passive, and unchanging witness.
 Exists independently from material existence.
 Infinite in number (each being has its own Purusha).
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana
• Prakriti (Matter, Nature, Energy)
 The active, creative, and changing principle.
 Includes mind, body, and the entire material universe.
 Composed of three Gunas (qualities):
i. Sattva (purity, knowledge, light)
ii. Rajas (activity, passion, motion)
iii. Tamas (inertia, darkness, ignorance)
Dept of EEE
• According to Sāṃkhya , when Purusha interacts with Prakriti, the
material world emerges.
• Prakriti evolves into 23 Tattvas (Principles), creating everything we
experience.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana
Purusha & Prakriti
• Sāṃkhya explains reality through 25 fundamental principles:
Category Elements
1. Purusha (Spirit) The conscious observer
The unmanifested source of all material
2. Prakriti (Matter)
existence
Cosmic intelligence, first evolution of
3. Mahat (Buddhi – Intelligence)
Prakriti
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4. Ahamkara (Ego-Sense) Individual identity, the "I“/”mine” feeling
5-9. Manas (Mind) & 5 Jñānendriyas
Mind, sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell
(Senses)
Speech, hands, feet, excretion,
10-14. Five Karmendriyas (Action organs)
reproduction
15-19. Five Tanmatras (Subtle elements) Sound, touch, form, taste, smell
20-24. Five Mahābhūtas (Gross elements) Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Space
25. Liberation (Kaivalya) State of freedom from material bondage
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana
Liberation (Moksha) – Freedom from Prakriti
• Bondage happens when Purusha wrongly identifies itself with
Prakriti (body, mind, emotions).

• Liberation (Kaivalya) is attained when one realizes that Purusha is

separate from Prakriti.

Dept of EEE • This leads to freedom from suffering and rebirth.

 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana

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Prakriti and its Evolution into Matter

 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Sāṃkhya Darshana

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 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya

Founder Maharishi Gautama Maharishi Kaṇāda Maharishi Kapila
Core Text Nyāya Sūtra Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Sāṃkhya Kārikā
Ontology (study of Dualism (Purusha &
Logic, epistemology,
Main Focus reality) and Prakriti), evolution of
and reasoning
metaphysics the universe
Dept of EEE Pluralistic realism
Atomistic realism (7 Dualistic realism
View on Reality (16 categories of
Padārthas) (Purusha & Prakriti)
knowledge)

Pramāṇa (valid
knowledge), Seven Padārthas 25 Tattvas (elements),
Key Concepts Hetvābhāsa (categories), Atomic Three Gunas (qualities),
(fallacies), Tarka Theory (Paramāṇu) Evolution of Prakriti
(reasoning)
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya

Four: Perception,
Pramāṇas (Sources Inference, Two: Perception & Three: Perception,
of Knowledge) Comparison, Verbal Inference Inference, Testimony
Testimony

Strong atomic Does not focus on

Accepts atoms but
Concept of Atoms theory; universe is atoms; believes in
does not focus on
(Paramāṇu Vāda) made of eternal Prakriti as the cause of
them
atoms creation
Dept of EEE
Initially atheistic,
Strong theistic later incorporated Originally atheistic, later
Concept of God
approach; God as Ishvara as the theistic Sāṃkhya
(Ishvara)
the moral lawgiver guiding force of included Ishvara
atomic motion

Achieved by
Achieved by true Achieved by realizing
removing ignorance
Liberation (Moksha) knowledge of reality Purusha is separate from
through logical
(Tattva-Jñāna) Prakriti
reasoning
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya

Combined with
Later merged with
Relationship with Vaiśeṣika to form the Provided the foundation
Nyāya to refine
Other Systems Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika for Yoga philosophy
logical arguments
school

Strong influence on Influenced scientific

Influenced Yoga,
Influence Indian logic and thought and physics
Dept of EEE Vedanta, and Buddhism
debate traditions in ancient India
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana

• Yoga Darshana, also known as Pātañjala Yoga, is one of the six

classical schools of Indian philosophy (Shad Darshanas).

• It emphasizes self-discipline, meditation, and self-realization as a

path to liberation (Moksha).

• It is closely related to Sāṃkhya philosophy but incorporates Ishvara

Dept of EEE (God) and practical spiritual techniques.

• Founder: Maharishi Patanjali (c. 200 BCE – 200 CE)

• Primary Text: Yoga Sūtras of Patanjali

• The Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads also contain Yoga concepts.

 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana

• Yoga darshana explains this world using 4 key concepts. They are:
1. Yoga – Union of Self and Ultimate Reality
2. The Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga)
3. Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Yoga
4. The Concept of Ishvara (God)
5. Liberation (Moksha) in Yoga

Dept of EEE Yoga – Union of Self and Ultimate Reality

• The word Yoga means "union"—a connection between individual
consciousness (Jīvātman) and universal consciousness
(Paramātman or Brahman).

• Yoga provides a practical path to achieving liberation through self-

discipline.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana
The Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga)
• Patanjali outlined an 8-step system for achieving spiritual
enlightenment:
Stage Meaning Purpose

1. Yama Moral discipline (non-violence, truth, self- Ethical foundation

control)
2. Niyama Personal discipline (cleanliness, contentment, Inner purification
austerity)
Dept of EEE 3. Āsana Physical postures Physical well-being, steadiness

4. Prānāyāma Breath control Control over life energy (Prana)

5. Pratyāhāra Withdrawal of senses Freedom from distractions

6. Dhāranā Concentration Focusing the mind

7. Dhyāna Meditation Deep contemplation

8. Samādhi Ultimate absorption Liberation, union with the divine

 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana
Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Yoga
• Yoga Darshana recognizes three sources of valid knowledge
(Pramāṇas):
1. Pratyakṣa (Direct Perception) – Seeing, hearing, experiencing
directly.
2. Anumāna (Inference) – Logical deduction based on observation.
3. Śabda (Verbal Testimony) – Knowledge from scriptures and
Dept of EEE enlightened beings.
Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Yoga
• Unlike Sāṃkhya, which was originally atheistic, Yoga accepts the
existence of God (Ishvara).
• Ishvara is considered a special Purusha (conscious being) who is
beyond suffering and karma.
• Devotion to Ishvara (Ishvarapranidhāna) is one path to liberation.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Yoga Darshana
Liberation (Moksha) in Yoga
• Liberation (Kaivalya) is achieved when the Self (Purusha) separates
from the material world (Prakriti).
• The mind becomes completely still (Chitta-Vritti Nirodha), leading to
self-realization and freedom from suffering.

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 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga

Founder Gautama Kaṇāda Kapila Patanjali

Core Focus Logic, Ontology, Dualism Discipline &

epistemology atomism (Purusha & Meditation
Prakriti)
Main Text Nyāya Sūtra Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Sāṃkhya Kārikā Yoga Sūtras
Dept of EEE
Reality Pluralistic Atomistic Dualism of Union of Self &
realism realism Purusha & Divine
Prakriti
Pramāṇas 4 (Perception, 2 (Perception, 3 (Perception, 3 (Perception,
(Sources of Inference, Inference) Inference, Inference,
Knowledge) Comparison, Testimony) Testimony)
Verbal
Testimony)
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga

Concept of God Theistic Initially Originally Accepts Ishvara

atheistic, later atheistic, later as a guide
theistic theistic versions
Liberation Removing Knowledge of Realizing Discipline &
(Moksha) ignorance via reality Purusha & Meditation
logic Prakriti are (Ashtanga Yoga)
separate
Dept of EEE
Influence Indian logic, Ancient physics, Yoga, Vedanta, Yoga practices,
debates ontology Buddhism Hindu traditions
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

• Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, also known simply as Mīmāṃsā, is one of the six classical
Indian philosophical systems (Shad Darshanas).

• It focuses on the interpretation of the Vedas, rituals, and Dharma (duty).

• The term Mīmāṃsā means "reflection" or "investigation", and it primarily

deals with understanding the correct performance of Vedic rituals and the
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authority of the Vedas.

• Founder: Maharishi Jaimini (c. 200 BCE – 200 CE)

• Primary Text: Mīmāṃsā Sūtras by Jaimini

• Commentaries: Śabara Bhāṣya by Śabara (explains Jaimini’s Sūtras)

• Kumārila Bhaṭṭa and Prabhākara developed two major schools

 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

Core Philosophy of Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

1. Vedas are Eternal & Authoritative
 The Vedas are self-existent, unauthored (Apaureshaya), and infallible.
 They are the ultimate source of knowledge regarding Dharma (duty).
2. Karma (Action) is Supreme
 The main focus is on performing Vedic rituals correctly.
 Rituals (Yajñas) ensure worldly prosperity and spiritual progress.
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3. No Direct Focus on God (Ishvara)
 Pūrva Mīmāṃsā is non-theistic; it does not emphasize a personal God.
 It believes rituals themselves produce results through the power of
mantras and correct performance.
4. Law of Karma
 Actions (Karma) leave invisible impressions (Apūrva), which later bear
fruit.
 Good actions bring good results, and bad actions bring suffering.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

5. Dharma as the Supreme Goal

 Dharma is defined as actions prescribed by the Vedas.
 The ultimate purpose of human life is to follow Dharma through
rituals and duties.

Pramāṇas (Sources of Knowledge) in Mīmāṃsā

• Mīmāṃsā accepts six sources of valid knowledge (Pramāṇas):
Dept of EEE
i. Pratyakṣa (Perception) – Direct sensory experience.
ii. Anumāna (Inference) – Logical reasoning.
iii.Upamāna (Comparison) – Understanding through analogy.
iv. Arthāpatti (Postulation) – Presumption based on necessity.
v. Anupalabdhi (Non-apprehension) – Knowledge from the absence of
something.
vi. Śabda (Verbal Testimony) – Vedic authority is the highest source of
knowledge.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

Two Major Schools of Mīmāṃsā

• There are two major schools in Mīmāṃsā:

School Founder Key Beliefs

Emphasizes strict ritualism
Bhāṭṭa Mīmāṃsā Kumārila Bhaṭṭa
and realism
Prabhākara Accepts a more flexible
Prābhākara Mīmāṃsā
interpretation of rituals
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Two Major Schools of Mīmāṃsā

• Unlike other philosophies, Mīmāṃsā does not focus on Moksha as the
main goal.
• However, later interpretations describe Moksha as the cessation of rebirth
through perfect action and detachment.
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

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 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva

Mīmāṃsā
Founder Gautama Kaṇāda Kapila Patanjali Jaimini

Core Focus Logic, Ontology, Dualism Discipline & Rituals &

epistemology atomism (Purusha & Meditation Dharma
Prakriti)
Dept of EEE
Main Text Nyāya Sūtra Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Sūtras Mīmāṃsā
Sūtra Kārikā Sūtras
Reality Pluralistic Atomistic Dualism of Union of Self Vedic
realism realism Purusha & & Divine authority
Prakriti
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva

Mīmāṃsā
Pramāṇas 4 2 3 3 6
(Sources of (Perception, (Perception, (Perception, (Perception, (Perception,
Knowledge) Inference, Inference) Inference, Inference, Inference,
Comparison, Testimony) Testimony) Comparison,
Verbal Postulation,
Testimony) Non-
apprehensio
Dept of EEE n, Verbal
Testimony)

Concept of Theistic Initially Originally Accepts Does not

God atheistic, atheistic, Ishvara as a focus on God
later theistic later theistic guide
versions
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā

Aspect Nyāya Vaiśeṣika Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva

Mīmāṃsā
Liberation Removing Knowledge Realizing Discipline & Not a
(Moksha) ignorance via of reality Purusha & Meditation primary
logic Prakriti are (Ashtanga concern,
separate Yoga) focuses on
Dharma

Influence Indian logic, Ancient Yoga, Yoga Hindu rituals,

Dept of EEE debates physics, Vedanta, practices, Dharma
ontology Buddhism Hindu traditions
traditions
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta)

• Uttara Mīmāṃsā, commonly known as Vedānta, is one of the six classical

Indian philosophical systems (Shad Darshanas).

• While Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (earlier inquiry) focuses on rituals and Dharma,

Uttara Mīmāṃsā (later inquiry) is concerned with the nature of Brahman
(Ultimate Reality), self-knowledge, and liberation (Moksha).

• Founder: Vyāsa (Badarāyaṇa)

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• Primary Text: Brahma Sūtras (Vedānta Sūtras) by Vyāsa

• Other Foundational Texts:

i. Upanishads (Core philosophical teachings of the Vedas)
ii. Bhagavad Gītā (Spiritual discourse on duty and self-realization)
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta)

Core Philosophy of Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta)

1. Brahman is the Ultimate Reality
 The Upanishads describe Brahman as infinite, eternal, and beyond
duality.
 Everything in the universe originates from, exists in, and ultimately
merges into Brahman.

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2. Ātman and Brahman are One
 Ātman (individual self) is not different from Brahman (universal self).
 Realizing this unity leads to liberation (Moksha).

3. Moksha (Liberation) is the Supreme Goal

 Unlike Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, which emphasizes rituals, Uttara Mīmāṃsā
focuses on self-realization and detachment from material existence
 Orthodox Philosophical Schools – Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta)
4. Critique of Ritualism
 Rituals are seen as helpful but not essential for Moksha.
 Jnana (knowledge) is superior to Karma (rituals).
5. The World (Maya) is an Illusion
 Advaita Vedānta argues that the physical world is a temporary illusion
(Māyā).
Three Major Schools of Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Vedānta)
School Founder Key Beliefs
Dept of EEE Brahman alone is real; the world is illusion
Advaita Vedānta (Non- Adi
(Māyā). Ātman and Brahman are identical.
dualism) Shankaracharya
Liberation is attained through knowledge.

Brahman is the Supreme Reality but has

Vishishtadvaita Vedānta attributes. Individual souls are distinct but
Ramanujacharya
(Qualified Non-dualism) dependent on Brahman. Liberation is union
with Brahman in devotion.

Brahman (God) and individual souls are

Dvaita Vedānta
Madhvacharya eternally separate. Devotion to a personal
(Dualism)
God (Vishnu) is the path to liberation.
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā vs.
Uttara Mīmāṃsā
Criteria Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Uttara
Mīmāṃsā Mīmāṃsā
(Vedānta)
Core Atomism & Logic & Dualism Union of Vedic Non-
Philosophy Realism Epistemolo (Prakriti & Soul & God Ritualism Dualism /
gy Purusha) Theism
Metaphysic 9 16 Purusha Purusha & No creation Brahman as
s Categories Categories (Soul) & Ishvara theory, Ultimate
(Dravya, (Pramana, Prakriti Focus on Reality
Dept of EEE Guna, Doubt, etc.) (Matter) Dharma
Karma,
etc.)

Epistemolo Perception Perception, Perception Same as Vedas as Vedas &

gy & Inference Inference, & Inference Sāṃkhya + Supreme Direct
Analogy, Devotion Authority Experience
Testimony of Brahman
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā vs.
Uttara Mīmāṃsā

Criteria Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Uttara

Mīmāṃsā Mīmāṃsā
(Vedānta)
Concept of Not Theistic Atheistic Theistic Not Depends
God necessary relevant on Sub-
School
(Advaita,
Dvaita)
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Liberation Freedom Removal of Realization Union with Attaining Realization
(Moksha) from pain ignorance of Ishvara heaven via of Brahman
via Purusha's rituals
knowledge independe
nce
 Vaiśeṣika vs. Nyāya vs. Sāṃkhya vs. Yoga vs. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā vs.
Uttara Mīmāṃsā

Criteria Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Sāṃkhya Yoga Pūrva Uttara

Mīmāṃsā Mīmāṃsā
(Vedānta)
Ethics & Moral Logical Knowledge Meditation Vedic Self-inquiry
Practice duties reasoning & & Devotion Sacrifices & Devotion
& Debate Detachmen
t

Dept of EEE Major Texts Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Sāṃkhya Yoga Sutras Mīmāṃsā Upanishads
Sutra Sutras Kārikā Sutras , Brahma
Sutras,
Bhagavad
Gita
 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

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Nāstika (Heterodox) Schools
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka
• Cārvāka Darshana, also known as Lokāyata (world-outlook), is an
ancient Indian materialistic and atheistic philosophy that rejects the
authority of the Vedas, the concept of an afterlife, and metaphysical
entities like the soul (Ātman) and God (Īshvara).

• It advocates for a hedonistic approach to life, emphasizing direct

perception (pratyakṣa) as the only valid means of knowledge while
Dept of EEE rejecting inference (anumāna) and testimony (śabda) as unreliable
sources.

• The philosophy encourages individuals to seek pleasure and avoid

suffering, as it considers the physical body to be the only reality.

• It dismisses rituals, religious duties, and moral constraints that are

not based on direct experience.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka
• Due to its critical stance against orthodox traditions, Cārvāka was
often criticized by other philosophical schools, including Vedanta,
Buddhism, and Jainism.

• Though very little of its original literature survives, Cārvāka’s

influence can be seen in debates on skepticism and rationalism in
Indian philosophy.
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• The key features include:
1. Materialism (Lokāyata) – Cārvāka holds that only the material
world exists, rejecting the existence of soul (Ātman), God (Īshvara),
and an afterlife.
2. Empiricism & Pratyakṣa Pramāṇa – It accepts only direct
perception (pratyakṣa) as a valid means of knowledge, rejecting
inference (anumāna), verbal testimony (śabda), and other indirect
means.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka
3. Hedonism – Pleasure (sukha) is considered the highest goal of life,
and pain (duḥkha) should be avoided. It encourages enjoying life
rather than engaging in spiritual or religious austerities.
4. Critique of Religion & Vedas – Cārvāka rejects the Vedas as
authoritative, dismissing them as composed by self-serving priests.
It opposes rituals, sacrifices, and religious dogma.
5. Skepticism of Inference & Logic – It argues that inference is
Dept of EEE unreliable since it depends on assumptions that cannot always be
verified.
6. Rejection of Dharma & Moksha – Unlike other Indian philosophies,
Cārvāka denies the concepts of dharma (moral duty) and moksha
(liberation), as they are based on unproven metaphysical beliefs.
7. Focus on the Physical Body – Consciousness and life are seen as
products of the physical body, which ceases to exist after death.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Cārvāka
• Cārvāka was a radical school of thought that challenged religious
orthodoxy and promoted a rational, materialistic outlook on life.

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“CARVAKA
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 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism
• Buddhism is a spiritual tradition and philosophy founded by
Gautama Buddha in the 5th–4th century BCE in ancient India.

• It is based on the pursuit of wisdom, ethical living, and mental

discipline to attain liberation (nirvana) from suffering.

Core Teachings
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1. The Four Noble Truths – The foundation of Buddhist philosophy:
 Dukkha: Life is characterized by suffering.
 Samudaya: The cause of suffering is desire and attachment.
 Nirodha: Suffering can end by overcoming desire.
 Magga: The way to end suffering is the Eightfold Path.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism
2. The Eightfold Path – A guide to ethical and mindful living:
 Right View (understanding reality)
 Right Intention (commitment to self-improvement)
 Right Speech (truthful, kind communication)
 Right Action (moral behavior)
 Right Livelihood (ethical occupation)
 Right Effort (self-discipline)
Dept of EEE  Right Mindfulness (awareness and focus)
 Right Concentration (meditation for mental clarity)

3. Concept of Nirvana – The ultimate goal, where one is free from

suffering and the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara).
4. Karma and Rebirth – Actions (karma) influence future lives, shaping
the cycle of rebirth.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism
Major Schools of Buddhism
1. Theravāda – The oldest school, focused on personal enlightenment
through meditation and monastic discipline. Predominant in Sri
Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar.
2. Mahayāna – Emphasizes compassion (karuṇā) and the ideal of the
Bodhisattva (one who helps others attain enlightenment). Found in
China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
Dept of EEE 3. Vajrayāna (Tibetan Buddhism) – A mystical and esoteric form of
Buddhism incorporating rituals, mantras, and meditation
techniques. Practiced mainly in Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia.

• In India, both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, along with

Vajrayana (a branch of Mahayana), are practiced, with Mahayana
being more prevalent in northern India and Vajrayana having a
strong presence in regions like Tibet and the Himalayas.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Buddhism
• Buddhism has a profound impact on philosophy, ethics, meditation,
and mindfulness practices worldwide. It promotes peace, non-
violence, and self-awareness, making it relevant to contemporary
life.

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 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism
• Jainism is an ancient Indian philosophical school emphasizing non-
violence (ahimsa), self-discipline, and spiritual liberation.

• It was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), the 24th Tirthankara

(spiritual teacher), though its roots trace back even earlier.

• Jainism teaches that liberation (moksha) is achieved through ethical

Dept of EEE living, self-control, and deep meditation.
Core Teachings of Jainism
1. The Three Jewels (Ratnatraya) – The path to liberation:
 Right Faith (Samyak Darshan) – Belief in truth and teachings of
the Tirthankaras.
 Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana) – Understanding reality
without ignorance.
 Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra) – Practicing ethical discipline
and self-control.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism
2. Five Major Vows (Mahavratas) – Ethical principles followed by Jain
monks and nuns:
 Ahimsa (Non-violence) – Avoiding harm to all living beings,
including insects.
 Satya (Truthfulness) – Speaking only what is true and beneficial.
 Asteya (Non-stealing) – Not taking what is not given.
 Brahmacharya (Celibacy/Chastity) – Controlling desires and
Dept of EEE maintaining purity.
 Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness) – Detachment from material
possessions.
3. Karma and Rebirth – Jainism teaches that karma binds the soul to
the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). Only by eliminating karma
through self-discipline can one attain moksha (liberation).
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism
4. Doctrine of Anekantavada (Multiplicity of Truths) – Reality is
complex, and truth can be viewed from multiple perspectives,
promoting tolerance and open-mindedness.
5. Asceticism and Renunciation – Jain monks and nuns practice
extreme self-discipline, including fasting and meditation, to purify
the soul.
Major Sects of Jainism
Dept of EEE 6. Digambara ("Sky-Clad") – Monks renounce all possessions,
including clothing, emphasizing complete detachment.
7. Śvetāmbara ("White-Clad") – Monks and nuns wear white robes
and believe women can attain liberation.
• Jainism promotes non-violence, vegetarianism, environmentalism,
and ethical living, making it highly relevant in today’s world. Its
principles of compassion, minimalism, and mindfulness continue
to inspire people globally.
 Heterodox Philosophical Schools – Jainism

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 Cārvāka vs. Buddhism vs. Jainism
Feature Cārvāka Buddhism Jainism

Philosophy Materialistic, Spiritual, Ethical Spiritual, Ascetic

Hedonistic
View on God Atheistic Non-theistic Non-theistic

View on Soul No soul No permanent self Eternal soul

Afterlife No rebirth Rebirth until Rebirth until

Nirvana Moksha
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Goal of Life Enjoy pleasure End suffering Liberation from
rebirth
Concept of Karma Rejects karma Karma affects Karma binds the
rebirth soul
Sources of Only perception Perception, Perception,
Knowledge inference, scripture inference, multiple
views
Ethics & Morality Pleasure-driven Compassion, Strict non-violence,
Eightfold Path Five Vows
 Cārvāka vs. Buddhism vs. Jainism

Feature Cārvāka Buddhism Jainism

View on Material Only material world World is transient World is real but
World exists attachment is
bondage
Role of Asceticism Opposed Balanced Extreme asceticism
renunciation

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 INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS

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Āstika vs. Nāstika Schools
 Āstika vs. Nāstika Schools
Criteria Astika (Orthodox) Schools Nastika (Heterodox)
Schools
Acceptance of Accepts Vedic authority Rejects Vedic authority
Vedas
Belief in Atman Believes in eternal soul Varies; Buddhism denies
(Soul) (Atman) Atman
Major Schools Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Charvaka, Jainism,
Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Buddhism
Vedanta
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Philosophical Combination of scriptural Empirical, rational, or
Approach authority and logic materialistic approaches
Concept of Achieved through Different interpretations;
Moksha knowledge, devotion, or Jainism focuses on
(Liberation) karma liberation, Charvaka rejects
it

Belief in Karma & Strongly believes in karma Varies; Charvaka rejects,

Rebirth and rebirth Jainism & Buddhism accept
 Āstika vs. Nāstika Schools

Criteria Astika (Orthodox) Schools Nastika (Heterodox)

Schools
Epistemology Scriptural authority + logic Empirical or rational
(Sources of approaches
Knowledge)
View on Deities Believes in multiple deities Charvaka rejects deities,
forms or Brahman Jainism and Buddhism have
different views
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