The Nervous System is a complex network of

neurons that form the rapid control system of the

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 Structure of Neuron
 A neuron has three
distinct parts. These are:
1. Cell body (Soma)-
contains nucleus & other
organelles.
2. Dendrites –carry impulse
towards cell body
3. Axon-carry impulse away
from cell body
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 Functional Classification of

Neurons
Neurons are classified according to the
direction in which the nerve impulse
is conveyed with respect to the CNS.
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons- conduct
impulses from periphery (receptors) to
the CNS.
2. Motor neurons (efferent) – conduct
impulses from CNS to the periphery
(effectors).
3. Association (interneurons) – are
mainly located within the CNS b/n
sensory & motor neurons. Interneurons
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integrate incoming information from
Functional Classification of Neurons...

7
Synaptic Transmission
Synapse: Region where axon terminal
meets its target cell (Nerve, muscle or gland
cell)
 Presynaptic neuron: Neuron sending
signal
 Postsynaptic neuron: Neuron receiving
message
 Synaptic cleft: The region b/n these two
cells

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Neuroglial Cells of CNS

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 Myelinated & Unmyelinated Axon
 Myelinated axon-has myelin sheath

 Unmyelinated axon-has not myelin

sheath
 Myelin ↑rate of impulse
transmission.
 In the middle of axon are gaps where there
is no myelin – these are called Nodes of
Ranvier.
 Factors affecting conduction of
impulse
 Diameter of nerve fiber

 Myelination


Continuous Conduction & Saltatory
Conduction

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 Peripheral Nervous System

 PNs is outside of the brain & spinal cord.

 Consists of:

- 31 pairs of Spinal nerves

- 12 pairs of Cranial nerves
 Carry info to & from the CNS

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nerv. System 15
 Peripheral Nervous System…

Cranial Nerves Spinal Nerves

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Cranial Nerves & their Functions

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Autonomic Nervous System

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ANS Neurotransmitters &
Receptors

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 ANS Neurotransmitters &
Receptors..
 Two principal receptors are:

1. Cholinergic receptors

2. Adregenic receptors

A. Cholinergic receptors are:

a. Nicotinic receptors

b. Muscarinic receptors
 Both are receptors of Acetylcholine & Ach activates both
receptors.

B. Adrenergic receptors

a. Alpha receptors (alpha 1 & 2)

b. Beta receptors (beta 1 & 2)

 Both are receptors of Norepinephrine (NE) and Epinephrine20 (E)
Effects of ANS on Organ
system

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Effects of ANS on Organ
system

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Central Nervous System

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Major Parts of The Brain

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The brain is protected by the cranial bones & cranial
meninges.

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Meninges (CNS
Membranes)
CNS Meninges
are:
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater

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 Cerebrospinal Fluid
(CSF)
CerebroSpinal Fluid (CSF) protects the brain and spinal cord and
delivers nutrients from the blood to the brain and spinal cord.
CSF also removes wastes from the brain & spinal cord to the blood.
(CSF=80-150ml)

 CSF is similar to
plasma, but lower
in K+ and higher
in Na+

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 Ventricles of the
Brain
Brain Ventricles are hollow chambers which are
filled with cerebrospinal fluid and lined by ependymal
cells.

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Hydrocephalus in a New Born

↑CSF→ ↑Intracranial pressure

(ICP)

Causes Compression of nerves

Impairs neuronal function

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 Blood–Brain Barrier (BBB)

 The CNS needs a perfectly regulated

environment to function properly.

 The BBB protects the brain from blood

–born substances (harmful

substances).
 Transport across the blood–brain

barrier can be by diffusion of small

lipophilic molecules, water, & gas.
 BBB: highly selective permeable

membrane
 Water soluble substances (hormones &
Fig: Blood-Brain
drugs) can’t pass BBB. Barrier 30
 Cerebrum
 Largest portion of brain (80%).

 Most developed in man

 Responsible for Higher Brain Functions like:

-Planning

-Perception

-Learning

-Memory

-Speech

-Judgment & Attention

 Cerebrum has two hemispheres

-Right hemisphere

-Left hemispheres
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 Cerebral Lobes

 Planning
 Judgment

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Motor & Sensory Areas Cerebral Lobes…
The Cerebral Cortex Is Organized into Functional
Areas

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Broadman’s Areas of
Cerebral Cortex

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 Motor Homunculus
Body map or human body physical representation in
cortical areas. Homunculus is “little
man”
Where on cortex; upside down

Body part perform complex activities 36

 Sensory
Homunculus
Large Areas of
Representation:
1. Lips followed by
face & thumbs
2. Trunk small area

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Language Area of Cerebral
cortex
Wernicke’s Area- Language
Comprehension (Understanding)
Broca’s Area- Speech
Production (Word formation)

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Cerebral Lateralization
(Dominance)

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 Basal Ganglia…

Basal Ganglia: set of nuclei

deep within white matter of
cortex.
 Initiate & terminate
movements
 Parts of Basal ganglia are:
 Caudate nucleus, Putamen &
Globus pallidus.
Other nuclei w/h are
functionally related to the
Basal Ganglia are: 40
Parkinson's Disease

Fig: Parkinson's Disease

41
 Other Cerebral parts…

Limbic System
(Emotional Brain)
Hippocampus
• Learning &
memory
storage
Amygdala
• Emotion &
memory
storage 42
Mechanism of Memory
 Particular areas appear
to be important in
certain kinds of
memories
A. Hippocampus - short
term memories involving
integration of stimuli,
consolidation
(converting from short-
term to long-term),
declarative memories (facts
and events)
B. Cerebellum -
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procedural memories (skill
Diencephalon

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45
 Reticular Activating
•
System
Extension of nerve fibers
(tract) that runs through central
core of Medulla, Pons and
Midbrain.
 Reticular Activating System
(RAS)
1. RAS ascending: Keeps the
cerebral
cortex alert & conscious
 RAS ascending tract is inhibited
during sleep and by drugs
46
 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

 Arousal (conscious brain), pain

6. Reticular Activating 47
System modulation
48
Structural Function of
Spinal cord

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Spinal Cord-Reflex
center

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Knee Jerk Reflex
(Patellar reflex)
Knee Jerk Reflex : Monosynaptic
reflex arc
Important for clinical diagnosis for
spinal cord injury

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SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY

52
 Sensory Physiology…
Smell
Taste
Special Fine touch
Vision
Senses
Balance Touch sense
Crude touch
Senses Audition Tactile Vibration
Deep pressure
Mechanoreceptive Pressure sense
Somatic sense Muscle tension
Sense of position
Kinesthetic
Somatic (Proprioception)
+visceral Movement of joints
sensations Cold
Thermoreceptive
senses
Warm

Pain sense
N.B. Each sensation is associated with a specific receptor type and pathway to CNS.

53
 Sensory Physiology…
 Sensory receptors—general are specialized epithelial cells or
neurons that transduce environmental signals into neural
signals. The environmental signals that can be detected include

mechanical force, light, sound, chemicals, and temperature.

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 General Model of
Sensory Perception

What is sensory
transduction?
It is the conversion of
stimulus energy into
electrical signal by receptor.

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General Sensory Pathway

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 Somatic Pathways
(Two Types)
 Somatic Pathways are classified into:
. Dorsal Column Pathway
. Spinothalamic Pathway

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Somatic Pathway

Crude (coarse) touch: it is also

called non-discriminative touch)
Allows the subject to sense that
something has touched them
without being able to localize
where they were touched (contrasting
‘’fine touch’’

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MOTOR CONTROL

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 Descending Tracts
 Descending tracts are motor tracts. They are divided into:

1. Pyramidal Tracts 2. Extrapyramidal Tracts

A. Pyramidal Tract are two types:

1) Corticospinal Tracts 2. Corticobulbar Tracts

 Corticospinal Tracts: The direct pathway from cortex to spinal

cord

 Concerned with discrete & detailed movements, especially of

the distal segments of the limbs, particularly the hands &

fingers.

 In the medulla oblongata near the junction of the spinal cord

and brainstem, most of the corticospinal fibers cross the 61

 Descending Tracts
1. Corticospinal Tracts

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 Descending Tracts…
2. Corticobulbar Pathway (“bulbar” means
“pertaining to the brainstem”), a pathway that begins

in the motor cortex and ends in the brainstem.

• The corticobulbar fibers control, directly or indirectly

via interneurons, the motor neurons that innervate

muscles of the eye, face, tongue, and throat.

• These fibers are the main source of control for

voluntary movement of the muscles of the head

and neck. 63
 Extrapyramidal Pathways
• Axons from neurons in the brainstem also form
pathways that descend into the spinal cord to
influence motor neurons.
 Extrapyramidal Tracts originated from:
– Basal ganglia, Red nucleus, Reticular formation,
Subthalamic nuclei, Substantia nigra, Tectum,
Vestibular nucleus.
• Axons of some of the brainstem pathways cross from
their side of origin in the brainstem to affect muscles
on the opposite side of the body, but most remain
64
uncrossed.
 Components of
Extrapyramidal System
Extrapyramidal
tracts includes:
1.Vestibulospinal
tracts
2.Rubrospinal tracts
3.Tectospinal tracts
4.Reticulospinal
tracts 65
Pyramidal & Extrapyramidal Tracts
Pyramidal system is the
chief organizer and executor
of voluntary movements.
Extrapyramidal system
includes all the motor
centres and pathways that
lie outside the pyramidal
system and are beyond
voluntary control
Extrapyramidal system
controls automatic,
repetitive, emotional
movements as well as the
66
posture and balance.
Summary: Ascending &
Descending Tracts

67
(Dorsal column system)

68