Protocols & Standards

• Protocol hierarchies
• To reduce the design complexity, most networks are organized as a
stack of layers or levels.
• Each built upon one below it.
• The number, name, contents ,function differs from network to
network.
• The function of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher
layers, shielding those layers from details of how the offered
services are actually implemented.

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Protocol hierarchies contd..
• Each layer acts as a virtual machine offering certain service to the
layer above it.
• Layer “n” on one machine carries a conversation with layer “n” on
another machine
• The rules & conventions used in this conversation are collectively
known as layer “n” protocol
• Protocol- is an agreement between communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.

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Protocol hierarchies contd..
• Five layered protocol is illustrated in fig below.
• The entities comprising of corresponding layers on different machine
are called peers.
• The peers may be processes, hardware devices etc.
• Peers can communicate using a protocol.
• In reality no data are transferred directly from layer “n” on one to
layer “n” on another

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 Network Software Protocol Hierarchies

Layers, protocols, and interfaces.

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Reference Models
• It is a conceptual standard layout that describes how
communication occurs between devices.
• There are two important network architectures
• The OSI Reference Model
• The TCP/IP Reference Model

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 The OSI Reference Model

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The OSI Reference Model

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The OSI Reference Model

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 The OSI Reference Model
• It is called OSI because it deals with connecting open systems i.e. it is
open for communication with other systems.

• OSI has seven layers which are described below.

• A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

• Each layer should provide a well defined function

• The function of each layer should be chosen according to some

internationally standardized protocols
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The Application Layer
• Contains protocols that are often needed by users, such as HTTP.
• The application layer is the most abstract layer and is closest to the user.
• The user is most likely to interact with the application layer than any
other layer in the model.
• When a browser wants a web page, it sends the name of the page it
wants to the server using HTTP.
• The server then sends the page back.
• Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail etc

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The Presentation Layer
• Deals with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
• Allows data to move from one machine to another while retaining the
appropriate format.
• Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer
• The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated
as per the required format to transmit over the network.

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The Session Layer
• Allows users on different machines to establish a session between
them.
• Session services include:
• Dialog control (whose turn to transmits next)
• Token management (who is allowed to attempt a critical operation
next)
• Synchronization (checkpointing long transactions so they can
continue after a crash)

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• All the above 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a
single layer in TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.

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The Transport Layer
• Serves as the interface between the Session and Network layers.
• The Transport Layer is responsible for breaking up larger messages from
the session layer into smaller messages and then sending them across the
network layer.
• The transport layer is responsible for making sure the data makes it to
the destination.
• It also determines what type of service to provide to session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network.
• Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
• TCP and UDP are common protocols used in transport layer.
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The Transport Layer contd…

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• The services provided by transport layer :
• Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which
include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an
acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of packet
is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.

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• Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not
acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster
communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is more
reliable than connection less Service.

• TCP VS UDP(Assignment)

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The Network Layer
• Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer.
• Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
• Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

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Network Layer contd…
The functions of the Network layer are :
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination. This function of network layer is
known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork
uniquely, network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender &
receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer. Such
an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

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Data link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery
of the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
• Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
• Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

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Data link Layer contd..
The functions of the data Link layer are :
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a
way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to
the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
• Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
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Data link Layer contd..
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that amount of
data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, MAC sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine
which device has control over the channel at a given time.

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The Physical Layer
• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
• Concerned with transmitting raw bits over the communication channel
• Convert the logical 1’s and 0’s coming from layer 2 into electrical
signals.
• Transmission of the electrical signals over a communication channel.
• The design issues are mainly concerned with when the sender sends 1
bit the receiver should get 1 bit only not zero.

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The Physical Layer contd…
• The design issues here are largely deal with mechanical, electrical &
timing interfaces & the physical transmission medium, which lies
below the physical layer.
• Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
• At the Physical layer, data is transmitted using the type of signaling
supported by the physical medium: electric voltages, radio
frequencies, or pulses of infrared or ordinary light.

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The Physical Layer contd…
• The functions of the physical layer are :
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or
mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the
data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
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 SUMMARY

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