UNIT - I

Learning – Types of Machine Learning – Supervised Learning – The

Brain and the Neuron – Design a Learning System – Perspectives and
Issues in Machine Learning – Concept Learning Task – Concept
Learning as Search – Finding a Maximally Specific Hypothesis –
Version Spaces and the Candidate Elimination Algorithm – Linear
Discriminants: – Perceptron – Linear Separability – Linear Regression
 Human Learning
• Learning is referred to as the process of gaining information
through observation.
• Why do we need to learn?
• In our daily life, we need to carry out multiple activities.
• A simple learning- walking down the street or doing the
homework.
• A complex learning - like deciding the angle of a rocket should
be launched, so that it can have a particular route.
Human can learn from past experience
and make decision of its own

4
What is this object?

5
 What is this object?

CAR

CAR

BIKE
It is a CAR
BIKE

6
Let us ask the same
question to him
What is this object?

7
Let us ask the same question to him
What is this object?
?

8
[ But, he is a human being. He can
observe and learn ]
Let us make him learn

show him

10
Let us make him learn
CAR

show him

CAR

BIKE

BIKE
11
 Let us ask the same question now
What is this object?

CAR

CAR

BIKE
BIKE
Past experience 10
Let us ask the same question now
CAR What is this object?

CAR

CAR

BIKE
BIKE

13
What about a Machine ?

Machines follow instructions

[ It can not take decision of its own]

14
 What about a Machine ?
We can ask a machine

• To perform an arithmetic operations such as

• Addition
• Multiplication
• Division

Machines follow instructions

15
 What about a Machine ?
• Comparison

• Print

• Plotting a chart

Machines follow instructions

16
What is Machine
Learning?

[ We want a machine to act like a human]

17
What is Machine
Learning?

[ to identify this object.] 18

What is Machine
Learning?

Price in 2025?

[ predict the price in future] 19

 What is Machine
Learning?

I made met him yesterday

[ Natural Language understand, and correct grammar ]

20
 What is Machine
Learning?

recognize face

[ Recognize Faces ]
21
What is Machine
Learning?
[ What do we do?

Just like, what we did to human,

we need to provide experience

to the machine.

22
What is Machine
Learning?
[
This what we called as Data
or Training dataset

+ So, we first need to provide

training dataset to the
machine
]

Dataset
23
What is Machine
Learning?

+ +
[ Then, devise algorithms and execute programs on the
data

With respect to the underlying target tasks ]

Dataset
24
What is Machine
Learning?

+ + +

Dataset [ Then, using the programs, Identify

required rules ] 25
What is Machine
Learning?

+ + +

Dataset [extract required patterns ]

26
What is Machine
Learning?

+ + +

Dataset [ Identify relations ]

27
What is Machine
Learning?

+ + + =

Dataset [ So that machine can derive inferences

from the data ] 28
 In summary, what is machine learning?
Given a machine learning problem
• Identify and create the appropriate dataset

• Perform computation to learn

• Required rules, pattern and relations

• Output the decision

29
 Machine Learning Paradigms
• Supervised

• Unsupervised Learning

• Semi supervised learning

• Reinforcement learning

[ We as human being solve various types of problem in our day-to-day life, <pause> Various decisions
need to be taken.
Depending on the nature of the problem, machine learning tasks can be broadly divided in ] 30
What is Supervised
Learning?
CAR

CAR

+ BIKE = Training Dataset

BIKE

Samples Labels

[In supervised learning, we need some thing called a Labelled Training Dataset ]
31
What is Supervised
Learning?
CAR

𝑓( ,
)=
CAR

+ BIKE = Training Dataset

BIKE

Samples Labels

32
What is Supervised
Learning?
CAR

𝑓( , )= CAR
CAR

+ BIKE = Training Dataset

BIKE

Samples Labels

33
What is Supervised
Learning?
CAR

𝑓( , )= CAR
Classification
CAR

+ BIKE = Training Dataset

BIKE

Samples Labels

[ If the possible output values of the function are predefined and discrete/categorical, it is called
Classification
33
Classifier
Elephant
Elephant

Classifier

Tiger Identify the Animal ?

Dataset
35
 Regression
• Regression

•𝑓( , )= 20500.50

Dataset

[ If the possible output values of the function are continuous real values, then it is called 36
Regression
[
The classification and Regression problems are supervised, because the decision depends on the
characteristics of the ground truth labels or values present in the dataset, which we define as experience
]

37
 What is Unsupervised Learning
CAR

CAR

BIKE

BIKE

Dataset

[ In the unsupervised learning, we do not need to know the labels or Ground truth 38
values ]
 What is Unsupervised Learning

Clustering
Dataset

[ The task is to identify the patterns like group the similar objects together ]
39
More Example Unsupervised
Learning

Dataset
40
More Example Unsupervised
Learning

Dataset
41
What is Reinforcement Learning

42
What is Reinforcement Learning

43
What is Reinforcement Learning

44
What are Human and Machine Learning?
What is Machine Learning?

• Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence.

Machine learning is defined as
‘A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some
class of tasks T and performance measure P, if its performance at tasks in T, as
measured by P, improves with experience E.’
• Machine learning is the process of creating predictive algorithm
by using historical data for the future data analysis.
• The machine learning is discipline to construct the system that
can learn from data automatically.
• Machine learning has ability to learn automatically without being
explicitly programming .
• ML system improves their performance automatically from previous
experiences .
• Difference between Traditional and Machine Learning programming
• In traditional programming, we would feed the input data and a well written and tested
program into a machine to generate output.
• In machine learning, input data, along with the output, is fed into the machine during the
learning phase, and it works out a program for itself.
 Real world
applications of
ML
 Types of Machine Learning
• Based on the methods and way of learning, machine learning is divided into mainly four
types.

The class labels of training data

it describes a set of predetermined
is unknown
classes
Dr. C.NAGARAJU HEAD OF CSE YSREC of YVU
Proddatur
 Supervised Machine Learning
• Supervised machined learning works based on predefined output labels.
• Train the machine using the labeled dataset, and then the machine will predict the output
using the test dataset .
• The labelled data specifies that some of the inputs are already mapped to the output.
• Train the machine with inputs and corresponding outputs and then machine predict the
output based on the test data.
 Supervised Machine Learning
• An input dataset of cats and dog images. First, provide the training to the machine to
understand the images, such as the shape & size of the tail of cat and dog, shape of eyes,
colour, height (dogs are taller, cats are smaller), etc.
• After completion of training, we input the picture of a cat and ask the machine to Identify
the object and predict the output.
• Now the machine is well trained, so it will check all the features of the object, such as
height, shape, colour, eyes, ears, tail, et., and find that it’s a cat.So it will put it in the cat
category.
• This is the process of how the machine identifies the objects in supervised learning.

Types of Supervised Machine learning

Supervised machine learning can be classified into two types of problems,

• Classification

• Regression
 Classification

• Classification: it is the process of assigning object to one of the several

predefined class labels
• Classification algorithms are used to solve the classification problems in which the output
variable is categorical,
• such as "Yes “ or No, Male or Female, Red or Blue, etc.
• The classification algorithms predict the categories present in the dataset.
• Some applications of classification algorithms are
• Spam Detection, Email filtering, etc.
• Some popular classification algorithms are given below:
• Random Forest Algorithm
• Decision Tree Algorithm
• Logistic Regression Algorithm
• Support Vector Machine Algorithm
 Regression
• Regression algorithms are used to solve regression problems in which there is a linear
relationship between input and output variables.
• These are used to predict continuous output variables, such as market trends, weather
prediction, mark of student etc.
• Some popular Regression algorithms are given below:
• Simple Linear Regression Algorithm
• Multivariate Regression Algorithm
• Decision Tree Algorithm
• Lasso Regression
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Unsupervised
Learning Algorithm
Advantages:
• Since supervised learning work with the labelled dataset so we can have an exact idea about
the classes of objects.
• These algorithms are helpful in predicting the output on the basis of prior experience.
Disadvantages:
• These algorithms are not able to solve complex tasks.
• It may predict the wrong output if the test data is different from the training data.
• It requires lots of computational time to train the algorithm.
 Applications of Supervised Learning

Some common applications of Supervised Learning are given below:

• Image Segmentation

• Medical Diagnosis

• Fraud Detection

• Spam detection

• Speech Recognition
 Unsupervised Machine Learning

• Unsupervised learning works on input data without

predefined output label
• In unsupervised machine learning, the machine is
trained using the unlabeled dataset, and the machine
predicts the output without any supervision.
• The main aim is to group or categories the unsorted
dataset based on similarities, patterns, and
differences.
• Machines are instructed to find the hidden patterns
from the input dataset.
 Unsupervised Machine Learning
• basket of fruit images are given input to
the machine learning model .
• The images are totally unknown to the
model, and the task of the machine is to
find the patterns and categories of the
objects.
• The machine will discover its patterns and
differences, such as color difference, shape
difference.
• Then it should predict the output when it is
tested with the test dataset.
Categories of Unsupervised Machine learning

Unsupervised learning can be further classified into two types, which are given
below:
• Clustering
• Association
 Clustering
• The clustering is used to find the inherent groups from the data.
• the objects in the group are most similar to each other and no similarities with the
objects of other groups.
• An example of the clustering algorithm is grouping the customers by their purchasing
behavior.
Some of the popular clustering algorithms are given below:
• K-Means Clustering algorithm
• Mean-shift algorithm
• DBSCAN Algorithm
• Principal Component Analysis
• Independent Component Analysis
Association

• Association finds interesting relations among variables within

a large dataset.

• It is used to find the dependency of one data item on another

data item.

• Based of dependency it maps those variables so that it can

generate maximum.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Unsupervised Learning Algorithm

Advantages:
• These algorithms can be used for complicated tasks.
• Unsupervised algorithms are preferable for various tasks on unlabeled dataset is easier
Disadvantages:
• The output of an unsupervised algorithm can be less accurate as the dataset is not labelled,
• algorithms are not trained with the exact output in prior.
• It is more difficult as it works with the unlabeled dataset that does not match with the
output.
Applications of Unsupervised Learning

• Network Analysis
• Recommendation Systems
• Anomaly Detection
• Singular Value Decomposition
 Semi-Supervised Learning
• To overcome the drawbacks of supervised learning and unsupervised learning algorithms,
the concept of Semi-supervised learning is introduced.
• It is the intermediate ground between Supervised (With Labelled training data) and
Unsupervised learning (with no labelled training data) algorithms
• Hence, it uses the combination of labelled and unlabeled datasets during the training
period.
• Initially, similar data is clustered along with an unsupervised learning algorithm, and
further, it helps to label the unlabeled data into labelled data.
• It is because labelled data is a comparatively more expensive than unlabeled data.
Advantages and disadvantages of Semi supervised Learning

• Advantages:
• It is simple and easy to understand the algorithm.
• It is highly efficient.
• is used to solve drawbacks of Supervised and Unsupervised Learning algorithms.
• Disadvantages:
• Iterations results may not be stable,
• We cannot apply these algorithms to network-level data.
• Accuracy is low.
 Reinforcement Learning
• Reinforcement learning works on a feedback-based process, learning from experiences, and
improve its performance.
• Agent gets rewarded for each good action and get punished for each bad action;
• hence the goal of reinforcement learning agent is to maximize the rewards.
• A reinforcement learning problem can be formalized using Markov Decision Process
(MOP).
• In MDP, the agent constantly interacts with the environment and performs actions; at each
action, the environment responds and generates a new state.
• In RL, there is no labelled data like supervised learning, and agents learn from their
experiences only.
 Categories of Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning is categorized mainly into two types of methods/algorithms:

• Passive Reinforcement Learning:
• the agent's policy (sequence of actions) is fixed which means that it is told what to do,
• Therefore, the goal of a passive RL agent is to execute a fixed policy and evaluate it.
• Active Reinforcement Learning:
• An agent needs to decide what to do as there's no fixed policy that it can act on.
• An active RL agent is to act and learn an optimal policy.
• Applications of Reinforcement learning
Video Games
Resource Management
Robotics
Text Mining and etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Reinforcement Learning
Advantages
• It helps in solving complex real-world problems which are difficult to be solved by
general techniques.
• The learning model of RL is similar to the learning of human beings; hence most
accurate results can be found.
• Helps in achieving long term results.
Disadvantages
• RL algorithms are not preferred for simple problems.
• RL algorithms require huge data and computations.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: It Enables the machine to think like
how humans think
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science to build
smart machines to think how smart humans think.
It Builds the machine to :1.Thinking humanly 2.Thinking
rationally 3.Acting humanly 4.Acting Rationally

AI

23/03/2025 Prof.C.NagaRaju YSREC of YogivemanaUniversity

phone:9949218570
Machine Learning :how to makes the machine to learn
without being explicit programmed
It contains Set of statistical tools to explore and analyse
data 1.Supervised Learning 2. Unsupervised Learning
3.Semi Supervised Learning 3.Reinforcement Learning
AI

ML

23/03/2025 Prof.C.NagaRaju YSREC of YogivemanaUniversity

phone:9949218570
Deep Learning :It creates complex hierarchical models to mimic
how humans learn new Information
It creates Multi Neural Network Architecture which is similar and nearer
to human brain structure 1. ANN (Artificial Neural networks) 2. CNN
AI
(convolutional neural network) 3. RNN (recurrent neural network)
ML

DL

23/03/2025 Prof.C.NagaRaju YSREC of YogivemanaUniversity

phone:9949218570
Data science : Data science is the field of study that combines domain
expertise, programming skills, knowledge of mathematics, Probability and
statistics to extract meaningful insights from data

AI
ML

DS DL

23/03/2025 Prof.C.NagaRaju YSREC of YogivemanaUniversity

phone:9949218570
Applications of ML
• Spam mail Detection: Given email in an inbox, identify
those email messages that are spam and those that are not.
• Having a model of this problem would allow a program to
leave non-spam emails in the inbox and move spam emails to
a spam folder.
• We should all be familiar with this example.
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• Customer Segmentation: Given the pattern of behavior by a user
during a trial period and the past behaviors of all users, identify those
users that will convert to the paid version of the product and those that
will not.
•.
• Credit Card Fraud Detection: Given credit card transactions
for a customer in a month, identify those transactions that
were made by the customer and those that were not.
• A program with a model of this decision could refund those
transactions that were fraudulent.
• Stock Trading: Given the current and past price movements for a stock,
determine whether the stock should be bought, held or sold.
• A model of this decision problem could provide decision support to
financial analysts.
• Characteristics stock Trading
• 1) An Organized Body 2)Public Company Stock 3)Trading Through
Brokers 4)Going Public with IPOs. 5)Supply and Demand Affect Prices.
6)Stock Market Prediction. 7)Voting Rights. 8)Common Stock Value.
9)Common Bond Characteristics. 10)Convertible and Callable. 11)Bond
Rates, Maturity and Value.
• Product Recommendation: Given a purchase history for a
customer and a large inventory of products, identify those products
in which that customer will be interested and likely to purchase.
• A model of this decision process would allow a program to make
recommendations to a customer and motivate product purchases.
• Amazon has this capability.
• Also think of Facebook, Google Plus and Facebook that recommend
users to connect with you after you sign-up.
• Medical Diagnosis: Given the symptoms exhibited in a
patient and a database of anonymized patient records, predict
whether the patient is likely to have an.
• A model of this decision problem could be used by a program
to provide decision support to medical professionals.
• Speech Understanding: Given an utterance from a user, identify the
specific request made by the user.
• A model of this problem would allow a program to understand and make
an attempt to fulfill that request.
• The iPhone with Siri, cortana, google now has this capability.
• Digit Recognition: Given a zip codes hand written on envelops, identify
the digit for each hand written character.
• A model of this problem would allow a computer program to read and
understand handwritten zip codes and sort envelops by geographic
region
• Shape Detection: Given a user hand drawing a shape on a touch
screen and a database of known shapes, determine which shape the
user was trying to draw.
• A model of this decision would allow a program to show the platonic
version of that shape the user drew to make crisp diagrams.
The Brain and Neuron
• A neuron in the brain works by receiving signals from
other neurons through its dendrites, then processing the
information in the cell body, and finally sending an
electrical impulse (action potential) down its axon to
transmit the signal to other neurons, essentially acting
as a communication unit within the brain by releasing
chemical messengers called neurotransmitters at the
synapse where it connects to other neurons; this
process allows for complex functions like thought,
memory, and movement.
Neuron Parts

A neuron has three main parts:

• dendrites (receiving signals),
• cell body (processing
information)
• axon (transmitting signals).
Kinds of Neurons
• There are three kinds of neurons:
1.Sensory neurons carry information
from the sense organs (such as the
eyes and ears) to the brain.
2.Motor neurons control voluntary
muscle activity, such as walking and
talking, and carry messages from
nerve cells in the brain to the
muscles.
3.Other neurons, called interneurons,
make connections between sensory
and motor neurons.
Neurons are information messengers.
They use electrical and chemical signals to send information between
different areas of the brain, as well as between the brain, the spinal cord,
and the entire body.
Everything we think, feel, and do would be impossible without the work of
neurons and their support cells, the glial cells called astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes.
A neuron has three basic parts: a cell body, an axon, and dendrites. Within
the cell body is a nucleus, which controls the cell’s activities and contains
the cell’s genetic material. The axon looks like a long tail and sends
messages from the cell. Dendrites look like branches of a tree and receive
messages for the cell. Neurons communicate with each other by sending
chemicals, called neurotransmitters, across a tiny space called a synapse,
between the axons and dendrites of nearby neurons.
Artificial Neural Networks

• The term "Artificial Neural Network" is

derived from Biological neural
networks that develop the structure of a
human brain.
• Similar to the human brain that has
neurons interconnected to one another,
artificial neural networks also have
neurons that are interconnected to one
another in various layers of the
networks.
• These neurons are known as nodes.
• Dendrites from Biological Neural Network represent inputs in
Artificial Neural Networks, cell nucleus represents Nodes, synapse
represents Weights, and Axon represents Output.