BASIC CONCEPTS OF C++ PROGRAMMING

A SAMPLE C++ PROGRAM

OUTPUT
// my first program in
C++ Hello World!
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

 This program includes the basic components that

every C++ program has
COMMENTS
COMMENTS
• Comments are pieces of source code discarded
from the code by the compiler.
compiler
• They are used to insert notes or descriptions.
descriptions
• C++ supports two ways to insert comments:
– // line comment
– /* block comment */
• The Line comment,
comment discards everything from
where the double slash signs (//) is found up to
the end of that same line.
• The Block comment,
comment discards everything
between the /* characters and the next
appearance of the */ characters, with the
possibility of including several lines.
lines
Example of Comments

/* my second program in C++ with

more comments */
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World! "; // shows
Hello World!
cout << “A C++ program";// shows A C++
program
return 0;
}
DATA TYPES
 DATA TYPES
• There are many different types of
data.
– In the realm of numeric information, for
example, there are whole numbers and
fractional numbers.
– There are negative numbers and positive
numbers.
– And there are numbers so large,
large and others
so small,
small that they don’t even have a name.
– Then there is textual information. Names
and addresses, for instance, are stored as
groups of characters.
Data Types
• C++ offers two very broadest data types:
types
– numeric and
– character.
• Numeric data types are broken into two
additional categories:
– integer and
– floating-point.
• Integers are whole numbers like 12, 157, –34,
and 2.
• Floating-point numbers have a decimal point,
like 23.7, 189.0231, and 0.987.
• Additionally, the integer and floating point data
types are broken into even more classifications.
Integer Data Types

• Includes
– short
– unsigned short
– Int
– unsigned int
– Long
– unsigned long
data types
Floating-Point Data
Types
• Are data type that allows fractional
values.
values
– If you are writing a program that works with
dollar amounts or precise measurements
you need floating point data types
• In C++ there are three data types that
can represent floating-point numbers.
• They are
– float
– double
– long double
 Floating-Point Data
•
Types
Internally, floating-point numbers are stored in a
manner similar to scientific notation.
notation
– In scientific notation the number 47,281.97 is
4.728197x104.
• Computers typically use E notation to represent
floating-point values.
– In E notation, the number 47,281.97 would be
4.728197E4. The part of the number before the E is the
mantissa,
mantissa and the part after the E is the power of 10.
10
• The following table shows other numbers
represented in scientific and E notation.
Char Data Type

• A char variable (used to hold

characters) is most often one byte
long.
Size of Data Types
• The size of a variable is the number of
bytes of memory it uses.
• Our computer's memory is organized in
bytes.
• A byte is the minimum amount of
memory that we can manage.
• A byte can store an integer between 0
and 255 or one single character.
character
• But in addition, the computer can
manipulate more complex data types
that come from grouping several
bytes,
bytes such as long numbers or numbers
with decimals.
List of the existing fundamental data
types in C++
Name Bytes* Description Range*

signed: -128 to 127

char 1 character or integer 8 bits length.
unsigned: 0 to 255

signed: -32768 to 32767

short 2 integer 16 bits length.
unsigned: 0 to 65535
signed:-2147483648 to
long 4 integer 32 bits length. 2147483647
unsigned: 0 to 4294967295
Integer. Its length traditionally
int * depends on the length of the See short, long
system's Word type, 2 (4) bytes.
float 4 floating point number. 3.4e + / - 38 (7 digits)
double precision floating point
double 8 1.7e + / - 308 (15 digits)
number.
long double precision floating point
long double 10 1.2e + / - 4932 (19 digits)
number.
VARIABLES
Variables
• You can use variables to store values
and you can perform any
mathematical operation on those
variables
• This can be expressed in C++ with the
following instruction set:
– a = 5;
– b = 2;
– a = a + 1;
– result = a - b;
Declaration of variables

• In order to use a variable in C++, we

must first declare it
• The syntax to declare a new variable
is:
– data type specifier (like int, short,
float...) followed by a valid variable
identifier.
• For example:
int a;
float mynumber;
// Are valid declarations of variables.
….Declaration of
variables
• You can declare all of the variables of
the same data type in the same line
separating the identifiers with commas.
• For example:
int a, b, c;
declares three variables (a, b and c) of
type int , and has exactly the same
meaning as if we had written:
int a;
int b;
int c;
 Examples on operating with
variables
Output
Example-1
// operating with variables
4
int main ()
{
int a, b, result; // declaring
variables
// process:
a = 5;
b = 2;
a = a + 1;
result = a - b;
cout << result; // print out the
result
return 0; // terminate the program
}
Example-2
• // a C++ program with a variable
int main()
{
int number;
number = 5;
cout << "The value of number is " << "number" <<
endl;
cout << "The value of number is " << number <<
endl;
number = 7;
cout << "Now the value of number is " << number <<
endl;
return 0;
}
Output
The value of number is number
The value of number is 5
Now the value of number is 7
Initialization of
variables
• To make a variable to store a concrete value
the moment that it is declared, append an
equal sign followed by the value.
type identifier = initial_value ;
• For example:
int number = 5;
• Here is the other way:
int number;
number = 5; // this line is an assignment.
• The = sign is an operator that copies the value
on its right (5) into the variable named on its
left (number).
CONSTANTS
CONSTANTS

• A constant is any expression that has

a fixed value.
value
• You must initialize a constant when
you create it,
– and you cannot assign a new value later.
• C++ has two types of constants:
– literal and
– symbolic.
symbolic
1. Literal Constants

• A literal constant is a value typed directly

into your program.
• For example
int myAge = 39;
– myAge is a variable of type int;
int 39 is a literal
constant.
constant
– You can't assign a value to 39,
39 and its value
can't be changed.
• They can be divided in Integer Numbers,
Numbers
Floating-Point Numbers,
Numbers Characters and
Strings.
Strings
Integer and Floating Point
Constants
• Values 1776, 707, -273 are numerical
constants that identify integer
numbers.
• Floating Point constants express
numbers with decimals and/or
exponents.
exponents
• They can include a decimal point:
– 3.14159 // 3.14159
– 6.02e23 // 6.02 x 1023
– 1.6e-19 // 1.6 x 10-19
– 3.0 // 3.0
 Characters and strings
• There also exist non-numerical constants,
constants
like:
– 'z', // single character
– 'p', // single character
– "Hello world", // strings of several characters
– "How do you do?". // strings of several characters
• Notice that:
– to represent a single character we enclose it
between single quotes (') and
– to express a string of more than one character we
enclose them between double quotes (").
• Notice this: x and 'x'. Here,
– x refers to variable x, whereas
– 'x' refers to the character constant 'x'.
 2. Symbolic
• AConstants
symbolic constant is a constant that is
represented by a name.
name
• There are two ways to declare a
symbolic constant in C++.
– Defining Constants with #define
• E.g. #define studentsPerClass 15
– Defining Constants with const
• E.g. const unsigned short int studentsPerClass
= 15;
…Symbolic Constants

• For example:
– If your program has two integer variables named
students and classes,
classes you could compute how
many students you have,
have given number of
classes,
classes if you know there were 15 students per
class:
students = classes * 15;
• In this example, 15 is a literal constant.
constant
• If you substituted a symbolic constant for
this value:
students = classes * studentsPerClass
IDENTIFIERS
 IDENTIFIERS
• An identifier is a programmer-defined name
that represents some element of a program.
– Variable names are examples of identifiers.
• A valid identifier is a sequence of one or
more letters,
letters digits or underscore(
underscore _ ).
• Neither spaces nor special characters can
be part of an identifier.
• Variable identifiers should always begin
with a letter and underscore(
underscore _ ).
• They cannot begin with a digit.
digit
• They cannot match any key word of the C+
+ language nor your compiler's specific
ones.
Legal Identifiers

• Here are some specific rules that must

be followed with all identifiers.
– The first character must be one of the
letters a through z, A through Z, or an
underscore (_).
– After the first character you may use the
letters a through z or A through Z, the digits
0 through 9, or underscores.
– Uppercase and lowercase characters are
distinct. For e.g. ItemsOrdered is not the
same as itemsordered.
….Legal Identifiers

• The following table lists variable

names and indicates whether each
is legal or illegal in C++.
Keywords

• Some words are reserved by C++, and

you may not use them as variable names.
• Keywords used by the compiler to control
your program.
• Keywords include if, while, for,
for and main.
main
• The key words make up the “core” of the
language and have specific purposes.
purposes
• They are words that have a special
meaning.
meaning
– They may only be used for their intended
purpose.
• They are also known as reserved words.
Key words according to
the ANSI-C++ standard
SPECIAL CHARACTERS
AND
ESCAPE SEQUENCES
 SPECIAL CHARACTERS
• There are several sets of special characters.
characters
• The following table provides a short summary of
how they were used.
used
 Escape Sequences
• Escape sequences are written as a
backslash character (\) followed by one or
more control characters
• They are used to control the way output is
displayed.
displayed
– They give you the ability to exercise greater
control over the way information is output by your
program.
• There are many escape sequences in C++.
– The newline escape sequence (\n)
\n is just one of
them.
– When cout encounters \n in a string, interprets it
as a special command to advance the output
cursor to the next line.
 ….Escape Sequences

• Do not confuse the backslash (\) with the forward slash (/).
• Do not put a space between the backslash and the control character.
BASIC
INPUT/OUTPUT
 BASIC INPUT/OUTPUT
• In the iostream C++ library,
library standard
input and output operations are
supported by two data streams:
– cin for input and
– cout for output.
output
• Therefore:
– cout (the standard output stream) is normally
directed to the Monitor
– and cin (the standard input stream) is normally
assigned to the Keyboard.
Keyboard
• By handling these two streams you can
show messages on the screen and
receive input from the keyboard.
Output (cout)
• The cout stream is used in conjunction with the
overloaded operator << (a pair of "less than" signs).
cout << "Output sentence"; // prints Output sentence on
screen
cout << 120; // prints number 120 on screen
cout << x; // prints the content of variable x on screen
• When the << symbol is used this way, it is called the
stream-insertion operator,
operator
– since it inserts the data that follows it into the stream that
precedes it.
• The information immediately to the right of the
operator is sent to cout and then displayed on the
screen.
– In the examples above it inserted the constant string Output
sentence,
sentence the numerical constant 120 and the variable x into
the output stream cout.
cout
 …. Output (cout)
• To use constant strings of characters we must
enclose them between double quotes (")
– so that they can be clearly distinguished from variables.
variables
– The output message is enclosed between double quotes
(") because it is a string of characters.
characters
• For example, these two sentences are very
different:
cout << "Hello"; // prints Hello on screen
cout << Hello; // prints the content of Hello
variable on screen
• The insertion operator (<<) may be used more
than once in a same sentence:
cout << "Hello, " << "I am " << "a C++
sentence";
this would print the message Hello, I am a C++
sentence on the screen.
 Input (cin)
• Handling the standard input in C++ is
done by applying the overloaded operator
of extraction (>>) on the cin stream.
stream
• This must be followed by the variable that
will store the data that is going to be read.
read
• For example:
int age;
cin >> age;
• cin can only process the input from the
keyboard once the ENTER key has been
pressed.
…. Input (cin)
• You can also use cin to request more
than one datum input from the user:
cin >> a >> b;
is equivalent to:
cin >> a;
cin >> b;
• In both cases the user must give two
data,
data one for variable a and another for
variable b that may be separated by any
valid blank separator:
separator
– a space,
space
– a tab character or
– a newline.
newline
 Example on I/O
// i/o example
#include <iostream.h>
int main ()
{
int i;
cout << "Please enter an integer value: ";
cin >> i;
cout << “\nThe value you entered is " << i;
cout << " and its double is " << i*2 << ".\n";
return 0;
}
OUTPUT
Please enter an integer value: 702
The value you entered is 702 and its double is
1404.
OPERATORS
 Operators
• An operand is usually a piece of data, like a
number.
• There are three types of operators: unary, binary,
and ternary.
• Unary operators only require a single operand.
operand
– For example, consider the following expression: -5
– The minus sign, when used this way, is called the
negation operator.
• Binary operators work with two operands.
operands
– The assignment operator is in this category.
– E.g. a=1
• Ternary operators require three operands.
operands
– C++ only has one ternary operator (? – conditional
operator).
– E.g. a>b ? a : b
Operators
• C++ provides operators to operate on
variables and constants
• Operators are a set of keywords and signs..
signs.
• Includes
– Assignment operator(=)
– Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, % )
– Compound assignment operators (+=, -=, *=,
/=, %=)
– Relational operators ( ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= )
– Logic operators ( !, &&, || )
– Conditional operator ( ? )
– The Increment and Decrement Operators(++,
--)
Assignment operator(=)
• It serves to assign a value to a variable.
a = 5;
assigns the integer value 5 to variable a.
• lvalue must always be a variable whereas
• rvalue can be either a constant,
constant a variable,
variable
the result of an operation or any combination
of them.
• For e.g.
a = b;
– assigns to variable a (lvalue) the value that contains
variable b (rvalue) independently of the value that
was stored in a at that moment.
…. Assignment
operator(=)
• For example, if we take this code :
int a, b; // a:? b:?
a = 10; // a:10 b:?
b = 4; // a:10 b:4
a = b; // a:4 b:4
b = 7; // a:4 b:7
will give us the result that the value
contained in a is 4 and the one
contained in b is 7.
• The final modification of b has not
affected a, (right-to-left rule).
 Arithmetic operators
( +, -, *, /, %)
• The following table shows the common
arithmetic operators in C++.
 …. Arithmetic operators
( +, -, *, /, %)
• The addition operator returns the sum of its
two operands.
– Here, the variable amount will be assigned the value 12:
12
amount = 4 + 8;
• The subtraction operator returns the value of
its right operand subtracted from its left operand.
– This statement will assign the value 98 to temperature:
temperature = 112 - 14;
• The multiplication operator returns the
product of its two operands.
– In the following statement, markUp is assigned the value
3:
markUp = 12 * 0.25;
…. Arithmetic operators
( +, -, *, /, %)
• The division operator returns the
quotient of its left operand divided by its
right operand.
– In the next statement, points is assigned the
value 5:
points = 100 / 20;
• The modulus operator,
operator which only
works with integer operands,
operands returns the
remainder of an integer division.
– The following statement assigns 2 to leftOver:
leftOver = 17 % 3;
 Compound assignment
•
operators (+=, -=,
The following table shows the combined
*=, /=,
assignment %=) also known as compound
operators,
operators
operators or arithmetic assignment operators.
operators
….. Compound assignment
operators (+=, -=,
• Programs may have assignment
*=, /=, %=)
statements of the following form:
number = number + 1;
– On the right-hand side of the assignment
operator, 1 is added to number.
– The result is then assigned to number,
number
replacing the value that was previously stored
there.
– Effectively, this statement adds 1 to number.
• In a similar fashion, the following
statement subtracts 5 from number.
number
number = number – 5;
 ….. Compound assignment
operators (+=, -=,
• Examples of statements: (Assume x = 6)
*=, /=, %=)
Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=,
<= ) allow you to compare numeric
• They
values and determine if one is
greater than,
than less than,
than equal to,
to or
not equal to another.
• For example,
– the greater-than operator (>)
determines if a value is greater than
another.
– The equality operator (==) determines if
two values are equal.
 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=,
• The following table lists all of C++’s
<= )
relational operators.
…. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=,
• All the relational operators are binary
<=operators
)
– They use two operands.
operands
• Here is an example of an expression using
the greater-than operator:
x>y
– This expression is called a relational expression.
expression
– It is used to determine if x is greater than y.
y
• The following expression determines if x is
less than y:
y
x<y
…. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=,
• Relational expressions are Boolean expressions
<=– which
) means their value can only be true or false.
false
• If x is greater than y,
y
– the expression x>y will be true,
true while
– the expression y==x will be false.
false
• The == operator determines if the operand on
its left is equal to the operand on its right.
right
– If both operands have the same value,
value the expression
is true.
true
– Assuming that a is 4,
4 the following expression is true:
true
a == 4
– But the following is false:
false
a == 2
 …. Relational operators
•
( ==, !=, >, <, >=,
The >= operator determines if the operand on its
<=
left )
is greater
right.
right
than or equal to the operand on the
– Assuming that a is 4, b is 6, and c is 4,
4 both of the following
expressions are true:
true
b >= a
a >= c
– But the following is false:
false
a >= 5
• The <= operator determines if the operand on its
left is less than or equal to the operand on its right.
right
– Assuming that a is 4,
4 b is 6,
6 and c is 4,
4 both of the following
expressions are true:
true
a <= c
b <= 10
– But the following is false:
false
b <= a
 …. Relational operators
( ==, !=, >, <, >=,
• The != operator is the not-equal operator.
operator
• It<= )
determines if the operand on its left is not
equal to the operand on its right.
right
• Is the opposite of the == operator.
• As before, assuming a is 4, b is 6,
6 and c is 4,
4
– both of the following expressions are true because
a is not equal to b and b is not equal to c:
c
a != b
b != c
– But the following expression is false because a is
equal to c:
a != c
 …. Relational operators
•
( ==, !=, >, <, >=,
Examples of relational expressions and their true
<=false)values. (Assume x is 10 and y is 7.)
or
 Logic operators (&&, ||,
• ! )connect two or more relational expressions
They
into one or reverse the logic of an expression.
• The following table lists C++’s logical operators.
 … Logic operators (&&,
•
||, ! )
The && operator is known as the logical AND operator.
• It takes two expressions as operands and creates an
expression that is true only when both sub-expressions
are true.
true
 …. Logic operators (&&,
•
||, ! )
The || operator is known as the logical OR operator.
• It takes two expressions as operands and creates an
expression that is true when either of the sub-
expressions are true.
true
 …. Logic operators (&&,
||, ! )
• The ! operator performs a logical NOT operation.
• It takes an operand and reverses its truth or
falsehood.
falsehood
• In other words, if the expression is true,
true the !
operator returns false,
false and if the expression is false,
false
it returns true.
true
…. Logic operators (&&,
||, ! ) a b a && b a || b

Examples true true true true

true false false true
false true false true
false false false false

!(5 == returns false because the expression at its right (5 == 5)

5) would be true.
!(6 <=
4)
returns true because (6 <= 4) would be false.
!true returns false.
!false returns true.
•For example:
( (5 == 5) && (3 > 6) ) returns false ( true && false ).
( (5 == 5) || (3 > 6)) returns true ( true || false ).
Conditional operator
( ?: )
• This evaluates an expression and
returns a different value according to
the evaluated expression,
expression depending
on whether it is true or false.
false
• Its format is:
condition ? result1 : result2
– if condition is true the expression will
return result1,
result1 if not it will return result2.
result2
…. Conditional operator
( ? )
•Example:
7==5 ? 4 : 3 returns 3 since 7 is not equal to 5.
7==5+2 ? 4 :
3
returns 4 since 7 is equal to 5+2.
5>3 ? a : b returns a, since 5 is greater than 3.
a>b ? a : b returns the greater one, a or b.
The Increment and
Decrement Operators (++
• They are designed just for incrementing and
and -- ) variables.
decrementing
– The increment operator is ++ .
– The decrement operator is - -.
• They are unary operators
• E.g.The following statement uses the ++
operator to increment num:
num++;
• And the following statement decrements num:
num--;
• The expression num++ is pronounced “num
plus plus,”
plus and num--is
num-- pronounced “num minus
minus.”
minus
…. The Increment and
Decrement Operators (++
• ++ and -- are operators that add and subtract
and --
1 from their)operands.
• To increment a value means to increase it by
one,
one and to decrement a value means to
decrease it by one.
one
• Both of the following statements increment
the variable num:
num
num = num + 1;
num += 1;
• And num is decremented in both of the
following statements:
num = num - 1;
num -= 1;
…. The Increment and
Decrement Operators (++
and -- )and decrement operators are
• Increment
used in:
– postfix mode,
mode where means the operator
is placed after the variable. E.g.
num ++;
num --;
– prefix mode,
mode where the operator is placed
before the variable name. E.g.
++num;
--num;
OPERATOR
PRECEDENCE
Operator Precedence

• Deals about which operand is

evaluated first and which later.
later
• For example, in this expression:
a=5+7%2
we may doubt if it really means:
a = 5 + (7 % 2) with result 6, or
a = (5 + 7) % 2 with result 0
• The correct answer is the first of the
two expressions, with a result of 6.
 … Operator Precedence
There is an established order for all the operators which can
appear in C++.
Priority Operator Description Associativity
1 ( ) [ ] -> . sizeof Left
++ -- increment/decrement
! unary NOT
2 &* Reference and Dereference (pointers) Right
(type) Type casting
+- Unary less sign
3 */% arithmetical operations Left
4 +- arithmetical operations Left
5 < <= > >= Relational operators Left
6 == != Relational operators Left
7 && || Logic operators Left
8 ?: Conditional Right
9 = += -= *= /= %= Assignment Right
 … Operator Precedence
• The following table shows some
expressions with their values.
 … Operator Precedence
• Grouping with Parentheses can force some
operations to be performed before others.
others
• All these precedence levels can be manipulated
using parenthesis signs ( and ), as in this example:
a = 5 + 7 % 2;
2
might be written as:
a = 5 + (7 % 2); or
a = (5 + 7) % 2;
• For example: consider the following statement
average = (a + b + c + d) / 4;
• Here the sum of a, b, c, and d is divided by 4.
4
• Without the parentheses, however, d would be
divided by 4 and the result added to a, b,
b and c.
 … Operator Precedence
• The following table shows more expressions
and their values with high- precedence
operations enclosed between parentheses.
EXPRESSIONS
 EXPRESSIONS
• In algebra it is not always necessary to use an
operator for multiplication.
• C++ requires an operator for any mathematical
operation.
• The following table shows some algebraic
expressions that perform multiplication and the
equivalent C++ expressions.
 … EXPRESSIONS
• When converting some algebraic expressions to
C++, you may have to insert parentheses in the
algebraic expression.
• For example, look at the following expression:

 To convert this to a C++ statement, a + b

will have to be enclosed in parentheses:
x = (a + b) / c;
 … EXPRESSIONS
• The following table shows more algebraic
expressions and their C++ equivalents.
equivalents
PROGRAMMING
ERRORS
PROGRAMMING ERRORS
• Debugging is the process of finding and
correcting errors in computer programs.
• Most programs you write will contain
errors.
– Either they won't compile or they won't
execute properly.
• Program debugging is another form of
problem solving
• There are three types of programming
errors:
errors
– Design errors
– Syntax errors
– Run-time errors
Design Errors
• They occur during the analysis, design,
design
and implementation phases.
• They occur due to:
– Choosing an incorrect method of solution for
the problem to be solved,
– Making mistakes in translating an algorithm
into a program, or
– Designing erroneous data for the program.
• Design errors are usually difficult to
detect.
detect
• Debugging them requires careful review
of problem analysis,
analysis algorithm design,
design
translation,
translation and test data.
data
Syntax Errors
• Syntax Errors are violations of syntax rules,
rules
– which define how the elements of a programming
language must be written.
written
• They occur during the implementation phase
• They are detected by the compiler during the
compilation process.
– Another name for syntax errors is compilation
errors.
errors
• If your program contains syntax errors,
errors the
compiler issues diagnostic messages.
messages
• Depending on how serious the violation is,
the diagnostic message may be a warning
message or an error message.
message
… Syntax Errors
• A warning message indicates a minor error that
may lead to a problem during program execution.
– These errors do not cause the termination of the
compilation process and may or may not be important.
• It is good practice to take warning message
seriously and eliminate their causes in the
program.
• If the syntax violation is serious,
serious the compiler
produces error messages,
messages
– telling you about the nature of the errors and where they
are in the program.
• Because of the explicit help we get from
compilers, debugging syntax errors is relatively
easy.
easy
Run-time Errors
• Run-time Errors are detected by the
computer while your program is being
executed.
executed
• They are caused by program instructions
that require the computer to do something
illegal,
illegal such as
– attempting to store inappropriate data or
– dividing a number by zero.
• When a run-time error is encountered,
encountered the
computer produces an error message and
terminates the program execution.
execution
• You can use these error messages to
debug run-time errors
 Review Question
 Write C++ expressions for the
following algebraic expressions
THANK U!
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END OF CHAPTER-2
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