Chapter 1: Introduction to the

Microprocessor and Computer

Introduction
 Overview of Intel microprocessors.
 Discussion of history of computers.
 Function of the microprocessor.
 Terms and jargon (computerese).

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Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will have an idea about:

 Computer terminology such as

 bit, byte, data, real memory system, protected mode memory
system, Windows, DOS, I/O.
 History of the computers.
 An overview of the various 80X86 and Pentium family members.

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Chapter Objectives (cont.)

 Draw the block diagram of a computer system and explain the

purpose of each block.
 Describe the function of the microprocessor and detail its basic
operation.
 Define the contents of the memory system in the personal
computer.

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History
 Blaise Pascal (1642) invented a calculator constructed of gears
and wheels.
 each gear contained 10 teeth
 When moved one complete revolution, a second gear advances
one place.
 same principle used in automobile odometer
 Basis of all mechanical calculators.
 PASCAL programming language is named in honor of Blaise
Pascal.

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 First practical geared mechanical machines
to compute information date to early 1800s.
 humans dreamed of mechanical machines that could compute with
a program
 One early pioneer of mechanical computing machinery was
Charles Babbage.
 aided by Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace
 Commissioned in 1823 by Royal Astronomical Society to build
programmable calculating machine.
 to generate Royal Navy navigational tables

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 Babbage’s Analytical Engine.
 Steam-powered mechanical computer.
 stored a thousand 20-digit decimal numbers
 input through punched cards, much as computers in the 1950s and
1960s used punched cards
 It is assumed idea of punched cards is from Joseph Jacquard, a
Frenchman.
 used punched cards as input to a weaving machine he invented in
1801

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The Electrical Age
 1800s saw advent of the electric motor.
 conceived by Michael Faraday
 Also a multitude of electrically motor-driven adding machines
based on the Pascal mechanical calculator.
 common office equipment until 1970s
 Introduced by Bomar Corporation the Bomar Brain, was a
handheld electronic calculator.
 first appeared in early 1970s

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 In 1889, Herman Hollerith developed the punched card for
storing data.
 apparently also borrowed Jacquard ideas
 Also developed mechanical machine that counted, sorted, and
collated information stored on punched cards.
 driven by one of the new electric motors

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 Punched cards used in early computer systems often called
Hollerith cards.
 in honor of Herman Hollerith
 12-bit code used on a punched card is called the Hollerith
code.

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 Mechanical-electric machines dominated information processing
world until 1941.
 construction of first electronic calculating machine
 German inventor Konrad Zuse, invented the first modern
electromechanical computer.
 His Z3 calculating computer probably invented for aircraft and
missile design.
 during World War II for the German war effort
 Z3 a relay logic machine clocked at 5.33 Hz.
 far slower than latest multiple GHz microprocessors

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Figure 1–1 The Z3 computer developed by Konrad Zuse uses a 5.33 hertz
clocking frequency. (Photo courtesy of Horst Zuse, the son of Konrad.)

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 System invented by Alan Turing.
 used vacuum tubes,
 Turing called his machine Colossus.
 probably because of its size
 First electronic computer placed in operation to break secret
German military codes.

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 Although design allowed it to break secret German military
codes generated by the mechanical Enigma machine, it could
not solve other problems.
 Colossus not programmable
 A fixed-program computer system
 today often called a special-purpose computer

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 Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
 First general-purpose, programmable electronic computer
system developed 1946.
 at University of Pennsylvania
 a huge machine.
 over 17,000 vacuum tubes; 500 miles of wires
 weighed over 30 tons
 about 100,000 operations per second

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 Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)
 Programmed by rewiring its circuits.
 process took many workers several days
 workers changed electrical connections on plug-boards like early
telephone switchboards
 Required frequent maintenance.
 vacuum tube service life a problem

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 December 23, 1947, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and
Walter Brattain develop the transistor at Bell Labs.
 Followed by 1958 invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by Jack
Kilby of Texas Instruments.
 IC led to development of digital integrated circuits in the 1960s.
 RTL, or resistor-to-transistor logic

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 First microprocessor developed at Intel Corporation in 1971.
 Intel engineers Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor
developed the 4004 microprocessor.
 U.S. Patent 3,821,715.
 Device started the microprocessor revolution continued today at
an ever-accelerating pace.

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Programming Advancements
 Once programmable machines developed, programs and
programming languages began to appear.

 The first, machine language, was constructed of ones and

zeros using binary codes.
 stored in the computer memory system as groups of instructions
called a program

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 More efficient than rewiring a machine to program it.
 still time-consuming to develop a program due
to sheer number of program codes required
 Mathematician John von Neumann first modern person to
develop a system to accept instructions and store them in
memory.
 Computers are often called von Neumann machines in his
honor.

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 Once systems such as UNIVAC became available in early 1950s,
assembly language was used to simplify entering binary code.
 Assembler allows programmer to use mnemonic codes…
 such as ADD for addition
 In place of a binary number.
 such as 0100 0111
 Assembly language an aid to programming.

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 1957 Grace Hopper developed first high-level
programming language called FLOWMATIC.
 computers became easier to program
 In same year, IBM developed FORTRAN
FORmula TRANslator) for its systems.
 Allowed programmers to develop programs that used
formulas to solve mathematical problems.
 FORTRAN is still used by some scientists for computer
programming.
 Similar language, ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language)
introduced about a year later

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 Firstsuccessful, widespread programming
language for business applications was
COBOL (COmputer Business Oriented
Language).
 COBOL usage diminished in recent years.
 stilla player in some large business and
government systems
 Anotheronce-popular business language is
RPG (Report Program Generator).
 allows programming by specifying form of the
input, output, and calculations

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 Since early days of programming, additional languages have
appeared.
 Some common modern programming languages are BASIC, C#,
C/C++, Java, PASCAL, and ADA.
 BASIC and PASCAL languages both designed as teaching languages,
but escaped the classroom.
 BASIC used in many computer systems.
 among most common languages today
 probably easiest of all to learn

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The Microprocessor Age
 World’s first microprocessor the Intel 4004.
A 4-bit microprocessor-programmable
controller on a chip.
 Addressed 4096, 4-bit-wide memory locations.
a bit is a binary digit with a value of one or zero
 4-bit-wide memory location often called a nibble
 The 4004 instruction set contained 45
instructions.

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 Mainproblems with early microprocessor
were speed, word width, and memory size.
 Evolution of 4-bit microprocessor ended when
Intel released the 4040, an updated 4004.
 operated at a higher speed; lacked improvements
in word width and memory size
 Texas Instruments and others also produced
4-bit microprocessors.
 still survives in low-end applications such as
microwave ovens and small control systems
 Calculators still based on 4-bit BCD (binary-coded
decimal) codes

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 Intel released 8008 in 1971.
 extended 8-bit version of 4004 microprocessor
 Addressed expanded memory of 16K bytes.
A byte is generally an 8-bit-wide binary number
and a K is 1024.
 memory size often specified in K bytes
 Contained additional instructions, 48 total.
 Providedopportunity for application in more
advanced systems.
 engineers developed demanding uses for 8008

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 Intel
introduced 8080 microprocessor in
1973.
 first of the modem 8-bit microprocessors
 MotorolaCorporation introduced
MC6800 microprocessor about six
months later.
 8080—and, to a lesser degree, the
MC6800—ushered in the age of the
microprocessor.
 other companies soon introduced their own
versions of the 8-bit microprocessor
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Table 1–1 Early 8-bit microprocessors

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 OnlyIntel and Motorola continue to
create new, improved microprocessors.
 IBM also produces Motorola-style
microprocessors
 Motorola sold its microprocessor
division.
 now called Freescale Semiconductors, Inc.
 Zilog
still manufactures
microprocessors.
 microcontrollers and embedded controllers
instead of general-purpose microprocessors
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What Was Special about the
8080?
 8080 addressed four times more memory.
 64K bytes vs l6K bytes for 8008
 Executed additional instructions; 10x faster.
 addition taking 20 µs on an 8008-based system
required only 2.0 µs on an 8080-based system
 TTL (transistor-transistor logic) compatible.
 the 8008 was not directly compatible
 Interfacing made easier and less expensive.

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 TheMITS (Micro Instrumentation and
Telemetry Systems) Altair 8800, was released
in 1974.
 number 8800 probably chosen to avoid copyright
violations with Intel
 BASIC
language interpreter for the Altair 8800
computer developed in 1975.
 BillGates and Paul Allen, founders of Microsoft
Corporation

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The 8085 Microprocessor
 In
1977 Intel Corporation introduced an
updated version of the 8080—the 8085.
 Last
8-bit, general-purpose
microprocessor developed by Intel.
 Slightly
more advanced than 8080;
executed software at an even higher
speed.
 769,230 instructions per second vs 500,000
per second on the 8080).

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The Modern Microprocessor
 In 1978 Intel released the 8086; a year or so
later, it released the 8088.
 Both devices are 16-bit microprocessors.
 executed instructions in as little as 400 ns (2.5
millions of instructions per second)
 major improvement over execution speed of 8085
 8086 & 8088 addressed 1M byte of memory.
 16 times more memory than the 8085
 1M-byte memory contains 1024K byte-sized
memory locations or 1,048,576 bytes

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 Increased memory size and additional
instructions in 8086/8088 led to many
sophisticated applications.
 Improvements to the instruction set included
multiply and divide instructions.
 missing on earlier microprocessors
 Number of instructions increased.
 from 45 on the 4004, to 246 on the 8085
 over 20,000 variations on the 8086 & 8088

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 These
microprocessors are called CISC
(complex instruction set
computers).
 additional instructions eased task of
developing efficient and sophisticated
applications
 16-bit
microprocessor also provided
more internal register storage space.
 Popularity
of Intel ensured in 1981 when
IBM chose the 8088 in its personal
computer.
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The 80286 Microprocessor
 Even the 1M-byte memory system proved limiting for databases
and other applications.
 Intel introduced the 80286 in 1983
 an updated 8086
 Almost identical to the 8086/8088.
 addressed 16M-byte memory system instead
of a 1M-byte system
 Instruction set almost identical except for a few additional
instructions.
 managed the extra 15M bytes of memory

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 80286 clock speed increased in 8.0 Mhz
version.
 executed some instructions in as little as
250 ns (4.0 MIPs)
 Some changes to internal execution of
instructions led to eightfold increase in
speed for many instructions.

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The 32-Bit Microprocessor
 Applications
demanded faster microprocessor
speeds, more memory, and wider data paths.
 Led to the 80386 in 1986 by Intel.
 Intel’sfirst practical microprocessor to contain
a 32-bit data bus and 32-bit memory address.
 Through 32-bit buses, 80386 addressed up
to 4G bytes of memory.
 1G memory = 1024M, or 1,073,741,824 locations

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 Intel released 80386EX in 1995.
 Called an embedded PC.
 contains all components of the AT class
computer on a single integrated circuit
 24 lines for input/output data.
 26-bit address bus; 16-bit data bus.
 DRAM refresh controller.
 Programmable chip selection logic

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The 80486 Microprocessor
 In 1989 Intel released the 8048.
 Highly integrated package.
 80386-like microprocessor.
 80387-like numeric coprocessor.
 8K-byte cache memory system.

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Internal structure of 80486
modified so about half of its
instructions executed in one clock
instead of two clocks.
Double-clocked 80486DX2
executed instructions at 66 MHz,
with memory transfers at 33 MHz.
called a double-clocked
microprocessor

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The Pentium Microprocessor
 Introduced1993, Pentium was similar to
80386 and 80486 microprocessors.
 Originally labeled the P5 or 80586.
 Intel decided not to use a number because it
appeared to be impossible to copyright a number
 Introductory versions operated with a clocking
frequency of 60 MHz & 66 MHz, and a speed of
110 MIPs.

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 Intelmay allow Pentium to replace some
RISC (reduced instruction set computer)
machines.
 Some newer RISC processors execute more
than one instruction per clock.
 through superscaler technology
 Motorola, Apple, and IBM produce PowerPC, a
RISC with two integer units and a floating-point
unit.

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Pentium Pro Processor
A recent entry, formerly named the P6.
 21million transistors, integer units, floating-
point unit, clock frequency 150 and 166 MHz
 Internal 16K level-one (L1) cache.
 8K data, 8K for instructions
 Pentium Pro contains 256K level-two (L2) cache
 PentiumPro uses three execution engines, to
execute up to three instructions at a time.
 can conflict and still execute in parallel

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 Pentium Pro optimized to efficiently execute
32-bit code.
 often bundled with Windows NT rather than normal
versions of Windows 95
 Intel launched Pentium Pro for server market
 Pentium
Pro can address 4G-byte or a 64G-
byte memory system.
 36-bit address bus if configured for a 64G memory
system

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Pentium II and Pentium Xeon
Microprocessors
 Pentium II, released 1997, represents new direction for Intel.
 Intel has placed Pentium II on a small circuit board, instead of
being an integrated circuit.
 In 1998 Intel changed Pentium II bus speed.
 newer Pentium II uses a 100 MHz bus speed

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 Intel announced Xeon in mid-1998.
 specifically designed for high-end workstation
and server applications
 Xeon available with 32K L1 cache and L2
cache size of 512K, 1M, or 2M bytes.

 Newer product represents strategy change.

 Intel produces a professional and home/business
version of the Pentium II
 Pentium III available with clock frequencies
up to 1 GHz.

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Pentium 4 and Core2
Microprocessors
 Pentium 4 first made available in late 2000.
 most recent version of Pentium called Core2
 uses Intel P6 architecture
 Pentium 4 available to 3.2 GHz and faster.
 supporting chip sets use RAMBUS or DDR memory in place of SDRAM
technology
 Core2 is available at speeds of up to 3 GHz.
 improvement in internal integration, at present
the 0.045 micron or 45 nm technology

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Pentium 4 and Core2, 64-bit
and Multiple Core
Microprocessors
 Recent modifications to Pentium 4 and Core2 include
a 64-bit core and multiple cores.
 64-bit modification allows address of over 4G bytes of
memory through a 64-bit address.
 40 address pins in these newer versions allow
up to 1T (terabytes) of memory to be accessed
 Also allows 64-bit integer arithmetic.
 less important than ability to address more memory

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The Future of
Microprocessors
 No one can make accurate predictions.
 Success of Intel should continue.
 Change to RISC technology may occur; more
likely improvements to new hyper-threading
technology.
 joint effort by Intel and Hewlett-Packard
 New technology embodies CISC instruction set
of 80X86 family.
 software for the system will survive

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 Basic
premise is many microprocessors
communicate directly with each other.
 allows parallel processing without any change
to the instruction set or program
 Current
superscaler technology uses many
microprocessors; all share same register set.
 new technology contains many microprocessors
 each contains its own register set linked with the
other microprocessors’ registers
 Offers
true parallel processing without writing
any special program.

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 In 2002, Intel released a new architecture 64 bits in
width with a 128-bit data bus.
 Named Itanium; joint venture called EPIC (Explicitly
Parallel Instruction Computing) of Intel and Hewlett-
Packard.
 The Itanium architecture allows greater parallelism
than traditional architectures.
 128 general-purpose integer and 128 floating-point
registers; 64 predicate registers.
 Many execution units to ensure enough hardware
resources for software.

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Figure 1–5a Conceptual views of the 80486, Pentium Pro, Pentium II,
Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Core2 microprocessors.

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Figure 1–5a Conceptual views of the 80486, Pentium Pro, Pentium II,
Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Core2 microprocessors.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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Barry B. Brey
 L3
L2
Cach cores watts Com
proc Rele Cach e dies/
Code Clock e Bus / / ment
nam ess ased / dev.
/ die dev. s
e proc
core
Itaniumessor
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(from 6
to 12
instructi
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2012- 1.73–
(D)+ 20– QPI with Instructi
32 nm 11-08 2.53 GH 1 4–8 130–170
512 KB 32 MB 6.4 GT/s on
[103]
z
(I) Replay
technolo
The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium, gy,
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 256 KB cycle),
2012- 1.73–
(D)+ 20– QPI with Instructi
32 nm 11-08 2.53 GH
512 L3 Ca 1 4–8 130–170
[103]
z L2 KB
Ca 32 MB 6.4 GT/s onCom
Code proce Relea (I) che/ dies/ cores/ watts/ Replay
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Kittson No
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Codena Release Cache/ dies/ cores/ watts/ Commen
process Clock Cache/ Bus
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core
or

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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1–2 THE MICROPROCESSOR-
BASED PERSONAL COMPUTER
SYSTEM
 Computers have undergone many changes
recently.
 Machines that once filled large areas reduced
to small desktop computer systems because
of the microprocessor.
 although compact, they possess computing power
only dreamed of a few years ago

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Figure 1–6 The block diagram of a microprocessor-based computer
system.

a bus is the set of common connections that carry the

same type of information
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 The Memory and I/O System

 Main memory system divided into

three parts:
 TPA (transient program area)
 system area
 XMS (extended memory system)

This map applies to any IBM personal

computer.

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The Memory and I/O System
Figure 1–7 The memory map of a personal computer.

Type of
microprocessor
present determines
whether an extended
memory system
exists.

First 1M byte of memory

often called the real or
conventional memory
system.

Intel microprocessors
designed to function
in this area using real
mode operation.

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The TPA
 Thetransient program area (TPA) holds the
DOS (disk operating system) operating
system; other programs that control the
computer system.
 the TPA is a DOS concept and not really applicable
in Windows
 also stores any currently active or inactive DOS
application programs
 length of the TPA is 640K bytes

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Figure 1–8 The memory map of the TPA in a personal computer. (Note
that this map will vary between systems.)

• DOS memory map shows how

areas of TPA are used for system
programs, data
and drivers.
– also shows a large area of memory
available for application programs
– hexadecimal number to left of each
area represents the memory
addresses that begin and end each
data area

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 The
IO.SYS loads into the TPA from the disk
whenever an MSDOS system is started.
 IO.SYS contains programs that allow DOS to
use keyboard, video display, printer, and
other I/O devices often found in computers.
 TheIO.SYS program links DOS to the
programs stored on the system BIOS ROM.

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 Drivers are programs that control installable I/O
devices.
 mouse, disk cache, hand scanner, CD-ROM memory
(Compact Disk Read-Only Memory), DVD (Digital
Versatile Disk), or installable devices, as well as programs
 Installable drivers control or drive devices or
programs added to the computer system.
 DOS drivers normally have an extension of .SYS;
MOUSE.SYS.
 DOS version 3.2 and later files have an extension
of .EXE; EMM386.EXE.

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 Windows uses a file called SYSTEM.INI to load
drivers used by Windows.
 Newerversions of Windows have a registry
added to contain information about the
system and the drivers used.
 Youcan view the registry with the REGEDIT
program.

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 COMMAND.COM (command processor) controls
operation of the computer from the keyboard when
operated in the DOS mode.
 COMMAND.COM processes DOS commands as they
are typed from the keyboard.
 If COMMAND.COM is erased, the computer cannot be
used from the keyboard in DOS mode.
 never erase COMMAND.COM, IO.SYS, or MSDOS.SYS to make
room for other software
 your computer will not function

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The System Area
 Smaller than the TPA; just as important.
 Thesystem area contains programs on read-
only (ROM) or flash memory, and areas of
read/write (RAM) memory for data storage.

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Figure 1–9 The system area of a typical personal computer.

• First area of system space

contains video display RAM
and video control programs
on ROM or flash memory.
– area starts at location A0000H
and extends to C7FFFH
– size/amount of memory
depends on type of video
display adapter attached

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 Display
adapters generally have video RAM at
A0000H–AFFFFH.
 stores graphical or bit-mapped data
 Memory at B0000H–BFFFFH stores text data.
 The video BIOS on a ROM or flash memory, is
at locations C0000H–C7FFFH.
 contains programs to control DOS video display
 C8000H–DFFFFH is often open or free.
 used for expanded memory system (EMS) in PC or
XT system; upper memory system in an AT

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 Expanded memory system allows a 64K-byte
page frame of memory for use by
applications.
 page frame (D0000H - DFFFFH) used to expand
memory system by switching in pages of memory
from EMS into this range of memory addresses
 Locations
E0000H–EFFFFH contain cassette
BASIC on ROM found in early IBM systems.
 often open or free in newer computer systems
 Video system has its own BIOS ROM at
location C0000H.

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 System BIOS ROM is located in the top 64K
bytes of the system area (F0000H–FFFFFH).
 controls operation of basic I/O devices connected
to the computer system
 does not control operation of video
 Thefirst part of the system BIOS (F0000H–
F7FFFH) often contains programs that set up
the computer.
 Second part contains procedures that control
the basic I/O system.

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Windows Systems
 Moderncomputers use a different memory
map with Windows than DOS memory
maps.
 TheWindows memory map in Figure 1–10
has two main areas; a TPA and system area.
 Thedifference between it and the DOS
memory map are sizes and locations of
these areas.

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Figure 1–10 The memory map used by Windows XP.

• TPA is first 2G bytes from

locations 00000000H to
7FFFFFFFH.
• Every Windows program can
use up to 2G bytes of
memory located at linear
addresses 00000000H
through 7FFFFFFFH.
• System area is last 2G bytes
from 80000000H
to FFFFFFFFH.

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 Memory system physical map is much
different.
 Everyprocess in a Windows Vista, XP, or 2000
system has its own set of page tables.
 The
process can be located anywhere in the
memory, even in noncontiguous pages.
 The
operating system assigns physical
memory to application.
 if not enough exists, it uses the hard disk
for any that is not available

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I/O Space
 I/O devices allow the microprocessor to communicate
with the outside world.
 I/O (input/output) space in a computer system
extends from I/O port 0000H to port FFFFH.
 I/O port address is similar to a memory address
 instead of memory, it addresses an I/O device
 Figure 1–11 shows the I/O map found in many
personal computer systems.

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Figure 1–11 Some I/O locations in a typical personal computer.

• Access to most I/O

devices should always be
made through Windows,
DOS, or BIOS function
calls.
• The map shown is
provided as a guide to
illustrate the I/O space in
the system.

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 Thearea below I/O location 0400H is
considered reserved for system devices
 Areaavailable for expansion extends from I/O
port 0400H through FFFFH.
 Generally,0000H - 00FFH addresses main
board components; 0100H - 03FFH handles
devices located on plug-in cards or also on
the main board.
 Thelimitation of I/O addresses between 0000
and 03FFH comes from original standards
specified by IBM for the PC standard.

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The Microprocessor
 Called the CPU (central processing unit).
 The controlling element in a computer system.
 Controls memory and I/O through connections called
buses.
 buses select an I/O or memory device, transfer data between
I/O devices or memory and the microprocessor, control I/O
and memory systems
 Memory and I/O controlled via instructions stored in
memory, executed by the microprocessor.

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 Microprocessor performs three main tasks:
 data transfer between itself and the memory or I/O
systems
 simple arithmetic and logic operations
 program flow via simple decisions
 Powerof the microprocessor is capability to
execute billions of millions of instructions per
second from a program or software (group of
instructions) stored in the memory system.
 stored programs make the microprocessor and
computer system very powerful devices

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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Barry B. Brey
 Another
powerful feature is the ability to
make simple decisions based upon numerical
facts.
a microprocessor can decide if a number is zero,
positive, and so forth
 These decisions allow the microprocessor to
modify the program flow, so programs appear
to think through these simple decisions.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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Barry B. Brey
Buses
 A common group of wires that interconnect
components in a computer system.
 Transfer address, data, & control information between
microprocessor, memory and I/O.
 Three buses exist for this transfer of information:
address, data, and control.
 Figure 1–12 shows how these buses interconnect
various system components.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
Figure 1–12 The block diagram of a computer system showing the
address, data, and control bus structure.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Barry B. Brey
 The address bus requests a memory location
from the memory or an I/O location from the
I/O devices.
 if I/O is addressed, the address bus contains a 16-
bit I/O address from 0000H through FFFFH.
 if memory is addressed, the bus contains a
memory address, varying in width by type of
microprocessor.
 64-bit
extensions to Pentium provide 40
address pins, allowing up to 1T byte of
memory to be accessed.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
 The data bus transfers information between the
microprocessor and its memory and I/O address
space.
 Data transfers vary in size, from 8 bits wide to 64 bits
wide in various Intel microprocessors.
 8088 has an 8-bit data bus that transfers 8 bits
of data at a time
 8086, 80286, 80386SL, 80386SX, and 80386EX transfer 16
bits of data
 80386DX, 80486SX, and 80486DX, 32 bits
 Pentium through Core2 microprocessors transfer 64 bits of
data

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey
 Control bus lines select and cause memory or I/O to
perform a read or write operation.
 In most computer systems, there are four control bus
connections:
 MRDC (memory read control)
 MWTC (memory write control)
 IORC (I/O read control)
 IOWC (I/O write control).
 overbar indicates the control signal is active-low;
(active when logic zero appears on control line)

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 The microprocessor reads a memory location by
sending the memory address through the address
bus.
 Next, it sends a memory read control signal to cause
the memory to read data.
 Data read from memory are passed to the
microprocessor through the data bus.
 Whenever a memory write, I/O write, or I/O read
occurs, the same sequence ensues.

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

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Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
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1–3 NUMBER SYSTEMS
 Use
of a microprocessor requires working
knowledge of numbering systems.
 binary, decimal, and hexadecimal
 This
section provides a background for these
numbering systems.
 Conversions are described.
 decimal and binary
 decimal and hexadecimal
 binary and hexadecimal

The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium,

Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Barry B. Brey