Unit 01

Basics of Computer Network

 Data Communication
 Data communications are the exchange of data
between two or more devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable/wireless.
Components of Data
Communication
 A data communications system has five components
 1.Message. The message is the information (data) to be
communicated. Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video.
 2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video
camera, and so on.
 3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message.
It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television,
and so on.
 4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the
physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
 5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
Transmission Mode / Communication Mode /
data flow

 Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or

full-duplex
NETWORKS

 A network is a set of devices (often referred to

as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
 Computer networks fall into two main types:
client/server networks and peer-to-peer
networks
 COMPUTER NETWORKS

 Networks are collections of computers, software, and

hardware that are all connected to help their users
work together. A network connects computers by
means of cabling systems, specialized software, and
devices that manage data traffic. A network enables
users to share files and resources, such as printers, as
well as send messages electronically (e-mail) to each
other.

 A computer network is a system in which computers

are connected to share information and resources.
 Goals of CN

 The main goal of networking is "Resource sharing", and

it is to make all programs, data and equipment
available to anyone on the network without the regard
to the physical location of the resource and the user.

 A second goal is to provide high reliability by having

alternative sources of supply. For example, all files
could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one
of them is unavailable, the other copies could be
available.

 Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a

much better price/performance ratio than larger ones.
 Another closely related goal is to increase the
systems performance as the work load
increases by just adding more processors
 Computer networks provide a powerful
communication medium. A file that was updated
or modified on a network can be seen by the
other users on the network immediately.
 Advantages of CN
 File Sharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file
sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation of a network
can easily see the files present on the other workstation, provided he is authorized
to do so.
 Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is also an important benefit of a computer
network. For example, if there are four people in a family, each having their own
computer, they will require four modems (for the Internet connection) and four
printers, if they want to use the resources at the same time.
 Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one computer on a network
which can easily share files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great
extent. A standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many
computers are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such
case.
 Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market
which are costly and take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this
issue as the software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and can be
used by the different workstations.
 Disadvantages of CN
 Security Issues: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the
security issues involved. If a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get
unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various
network security software are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and
classified data.
 Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets
affected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting
affected too. Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the
interconnectivity of workstations.
 Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high
depending on the number of computers to be connected. Costly devices like
routers, switches, hubs, etc., including NICs (Network Interface Cards) can add up
to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network.
 Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a
computer network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big
networks, the File Server should be a powerful computer, which often makes it
expensive.
 Applications of CN
 Business applications

 Resource sharing- This is the major goal of interconnecting computers

in an organization. The company aims at making all programs, equipment
or data available to all departments for any staff member to access
without physical movement from one place to another.
 Increase in performance and reliability- Every large, medium-sized
company and small companies vitally depends on computerized
information. Most of companies like banks have customer records,
inventories, financial statements, tax information, accounts which may
require employees to access relevant information and documents
instantly.
 Communication purposes- A computer network can provide a
very powerful communication medium to workers. In any office,
workers need to in their daily activities through the use
electronic email.
2. Home applications
 To access remote information. It is just for either accessing
information for academic purposes or for fun. Information
available on the net includes; sports, arts, business,
government, recreation, hobbies etc.
 For person to person communication. Today, you can access
newspapers on-line, you can also select any topic you want to
read on for example politics, scandals, sports, celebrities,
musicians etc.

 Interactive entertainment. One can interact with others in the

social sites like Facebook and twitter.
Mobile users
 Wireless computer networks play a major role in
mobile computers for example notebook computer and
digital assistants. One of fastest growing section in
the computer industry is mobile computers. Many
people are using laptops because they want to stay
connected even when they travelling
Social issues
 With the widespread of computer networking,
introduction of new social, ethical and political
problems a matter that is facing many internet users.
 Structure of CN

 Computer networks share common devices, functions, and

features including servers, clients, transmission media,
shared data, shared printers and other hardware and
software resources, network interface card(NIC), local
operating system(LOS), and the network operating system
(NOS).
 Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files,
programs, and the network operating system. Servers
provide access to network resources to all the users of the
network.
 Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the
network and shared network resources.
 Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities
used to interconnect computers in a network, such as
 Shared data - Shared data are data that file
servers provide to clients such as data files,
printer access programs and e-mail.
 Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared
printers and peripherals are hardware resources
provided to the users of the network by servers.
Resources provided include data files, printers,
software, or any other items used by clients on
the network.
 Network Interface Card - Each computer in a
network has a special expansion card called a
network interface card (NIC). The NIC
prepares(formats) and sends data, receives data,
and controls data flow between the computer and
the network.
 Local Operating System
 Hub - Hub is a device that splits a
network connection into multiple
computers. It is like a distribution center.
 Switch - Switch is a telecommunication
device grouped as one of computer
network components. Switch is like a
Hub but built in with advanced features
 Router - When we talk about computer
network components, the other device
that used to connect a LAN with an
internet connection is called Router.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

 The term Network Topology defines the

geographic Physical or logical arrangement of
computer networking devices. The term
Topology refers to the way in which the various
nodes or computers of a network are linked
together.
Types of Topologies
 Bus Topology

 The physical Bus Network Topology is the simplest and most widely
used of the network designs. It consists of one continuous length of
cable (trunk) that is shared by all the nodes in the network and a
terminating resistor (terminator) at each end that absorbs the signal
when it reaches the end of line.
 Bus Network Topology requires a multipoint connection .
 T-connectors
 Advantages of Bus Topology

 It uses established standards and it is relatively easy to install

and the use for small networks.
 It requires less media than other topologies.
 Failure of one node does not affect the network functioning.
 2. Cost is less as only one main cable is required and least
amount of cable is required to connect computers.
 4. Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by using
a connector.
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 If the main central line fails the entire network collapses.

 The bus networks are difficult to reconfigure, especially
when the acceptable number of connections or maximum
distances have been reached.
 Sharing a single communication channel results in slower
access time
 data collisions are frequent.
 Ring Topology

 The physical ring Topology is a circular loop of point-

to-point links.
 In ring topology, the various nodes are connected in form
of a ring or circle (physical ring), in which data flows in a
circle, from one station to another station.
 It has no beginning or end that needs to be terminated.
 In this topology, each device or node has a dedicated
point to point line configuration with only two devices on
either side of it.
 Signal is passed along the ring in one direction from one
station to another until it reaches destination.
 Each device in ring incorporates a repeater.
Advantages of Ring Topology

 They are very easy to troubleshoot because each

device incorporates a repeater.
 There is no master computer on controller. Every
computer has equal chance to place the data and
access the token.
 There are no collisions.
 Data packets travel at greater speeds.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 A ring network requires more cable than a bus

network.
 A break in cable ring brings down entire network (in
case of single ring).
 Adding or removing the node disturbs the network
activity.
 It is considerably difficult to install and reconfigure
ring Topology
Star Topology

 The physical star Topology uses a central

controlling or hub with dedicated legs pointing in all
directions – like points of a star. Each network device
has a dedicated point-to-point link to the central hub.
 This Topology, obviously, require a great deal of
cabling. This design provides an excellent platform for
reconfiguration and trouble-shooting
Advantages of Star Topology

 It is easier to add new node or modify any existing node without

disturbing network i.e. expansion is easier.
 Addition of new node does not increase communication delay.
 If any local computer or link fails, the entire system does not
collapse. Only that link or computer is affected.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the central controller or hub fails, entire system collapses.
 Cabling cost is more as each node is connected individually to
the hub.
 Requires more cable than most topologies
Mesh Topology

 In mesh topology, each node is connected to every other node in the

network i.e. each node has a dedicated point to point link to every other
node as shown.
 Advantage
 It is robust as the failure of one node does not collapse the entire
system. If one link fails, the entire system continues to work.
 There is no traffic congestion problem as dedicated links are
being used.
 Dedicated links ensure faster transmission without any delay.

 Disadvantages
 Connecting each device to every other device in the network
makes installation and reconfiguration difficult.
 It has high cabling cost as n (n-l)/2 links are required to connect n
nodes.
Tree or Hierarchical Topology

 : The type of Topology in which a central 'root' node, the top level
of the hierarchy, is connected to one or more other nodes that are
one level lower in the hierarchy i.e., the second level,
Advantages:

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub and can
therefore increases the distance a signal can travel between devices

 Disadvantages:
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. • More
difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 It has higher cabling cost in setting up a tree structure.
Hybrid Topology

 The hybrid Topology is a type of Topology that is composed of one or

more interconnections of two or more networks that are based
upon different physical topologies in a single network
Types of Network

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the
devices in a single office, building, or campus .Depending on the needs
of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as
simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it can
extend throughout a company and include audio and video peripherals.
Advantages of LAN or Local Area Network

 Resource Sharing
 Software Applications Sharing
 Centralized Data
Disadvantages of LAN or Local Area Network

 Privacy Violations
 The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data
files of each and every LAN user.Moreover he can check the internet
history and computer use history of the LAN users.
 3. Data Security Threat
Wide Area Network (WAN)

 A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,

image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that
may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.
 This one has a greater operation range, and consists of a huge computer
network which is spread over a large area. Internet technology is the
perfect model of the Wide Area Network (WAN).
Advantages

 Covers large geographical area:

 Centralized data:
 A lot of application to exchange messages:
 Global business:

 Distribute workload and decrease travel charges

Metropolitan Area Networks
(MAN)
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a
LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is
designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to
the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
 Personal Area Network (PAN)
 A PAN is a network which has a short range, and is intended for carrying
out data communication between several different devices,
 SAN is a high-speed network of storage devices that also connects
those storage devices with servers.
 CAN – Campus Area Network
 HUB, SWITCH, ROUTERS
1. Hub:
1. A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers in a local
area network (LAN).
2. It operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
3. It broadcasts data to all connected devices, regardless of the intended recipient.
2. Switch:
1. A switch is a networking device that connects multiple devices in a network and
uses MAC addresses to forward data specifically to the intended device.
2. It operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
3. It reduces network congestion by sending data only to the target device.
3. Router:
1. A router connects multiple networks and directs data packets between them.
2. It operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
3. It uses IP addresses to route data to the correct destination across networks.
Feature Hub Switch Router
OSI Layer Layer 1 (Physical) Layer 2 (Data Link) Layer 3 (Network)
Address Used No address used MAC Address IP Address
Data Broadcasts data to all Unicast, Multicast, Routes data to specific
Transmission ports Broadcast network addresses

Connects devices in Connects devices in Connects different networks

Network Type
LAN LAN (LAN to LAN, LAN to WAN)

Highly intelligent;
No intelligence; simply Intelligent; sends data
Intelligence determines the best path for
forwards data to the specific device
data
Each port has its own
Collision Each port has its own
Single collision domain broadcast and collision
Domain collision domain
domain
Broadcast Single broadcast Single broadcast Each port has its own
Domain domain domain broadcast domain
Speed Slower Faster Fastest
Device Type Passive Device Active Device Active Device
Internet connections,
Small home networks
Example Usage Office LANs connecting multiple
(outdated)
networks
•Use a Hub for basic network connectivity (rarely used
today).
•Use a Switch for efficient LAN communication.
•Use a Router to connect different networks and enable
internet access.
 WHAT IS MAC ADDRESS

MAC Address (Media Access Control Address):

•A MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to the network interface
card (NIC) of a device (like a computer, smartphone, or router).
•It operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
•The MAC address is used for local communication within a network. It is
permanent and usually hardcoded into the hardware by the manufacturer.
•Format: A MAC address is a 48-bit address typically written in hexadecimal
format (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
Example Usage:
•When a device communicates within a LAN (Local Area Network), the data
packets are forwarded using the MAC address.
 WHAT IS IP ADDRESS

1.An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each device participating in a

network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication (such as the internet).
•It operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
•An IP address is used for global communication across different networks, including
identifying devices on the internet.
•Format:
•IPv4 (most common): A 32-bit address written in decimal format (e.g.,
192.168.0.1).
•IPv6 (for larger networks): A 128-bit address written in hexadecimal format (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Example Usage:
•When you visit a website, your computer uses its IP address to communicate with the
server hosting the site.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE DEVICE
 Active Device:
• An active device requires a power source and actively processes and
manages data.
• These devices can amplify, regenerate, and route signals to other devices.
They usually have more processing capabilities and manage the flow of
data.
 EXAMPLE: Router, switch, repeater.
 Passive Device:
• A passive device does not require power to function. It simply passes
signals or data without modifying or processing them.
• These devices generally have no active role in managing or amplifying data.
• Example: hub (in basic form), cables, connectors.
 NIC CARD
 A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that allows a device (such as a
computer, server, or printer) to connect to a network and communicate with other devices
over the network. It can be wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi).
• Function:
• The NIC allows the device to communicate over a network by converting data from digital format to
the appropriate signal for transmission (electrical signals for wired networks or radio signals for
wireless networks).
• It handles the physical and data link layers (Layers 1 and 2) of the OSI model.
• Types of NIC:
• Wired NIC: Uses cables (e.g., Ethernet cables) to connect a device to the network.
• Wireless NIC (Wi-Fi NIC): Uses radio waves to connect to a wireless network (Wi-Fi).
• MAC Address:
• Each NIC has a unique MAC address that identifies it on the network. The MAC address is hardcoded
into the NIC by the manufacturer and is used to send and receive data within a local network.
• Physical Form Factor:
• NICs can be integrated into the device’s motherboard (built-in NIC) or be separate cards that can be
installed in the device (expansion card).
• A wired NIC in a computer allows the computer to connect to an Ethernet network.
• A wireless NIC in a laptop enables the device to connect to a Wi-Fi network.
 Network software:

1. Network Protocols:

 Network Protocols are defined as set of rules governing

exchange of information in an easy, reliable and secure

way. Protocols are the key for network communication.

Following are some most common protocols used to

transmit and receive data over a network.

 Some Common Protocols Used

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 The HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Telnet
 Telnet is the primary method used to manage network devices at the command level. •
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 SMTP is used for two primary functions. It is used to transfer email from source to destination between
mail servers and it is used to transfer email from end users to a mail system.
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
 • Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 • Hypertext Transfer Protocol over SSL/TLS (HTTPS)
• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is an application-layer protocol used for transferring
web pages, images, and multimedia content over the internet. It defines how messages are
formatted and transmitted between web clients (browsers) and servers, enabling users to
access websites.
• HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure) is an extension of HTTP that uses SSL/TLS
encryption to ensure secure data transmission, protecting sensitive information like passwords
and payment details from being intercepted by malicious actors.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer files between computers over a network,
commonly employed for website maintenance, large file transfers, and remote file access,
supporting authentication mechanisms for secure transfers.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) facilitates the sending and relaying of emails across
networks, primarily working between email clients and servers, and ensures messages are
correctly routed to their destination. In contrast,
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) allows users to retrieve, manage, and sync
emails directly from mail servers while keeping copies stored remotely, enabling seamless email
access across multiple devices.
• TELNET (Telecommunication Network Protocol) provides a command-line interface for
remote access to computers over a network, enabling system administration, file management,
and troubleshooting on distant servers.
• DNS (Domain Name System) acts as the internet's address book, translating human-readable
domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses, allowing devices to locate and
communicate with web servers.
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is used for monitoring, managing, and
configuring network devices such as routers, switches, and servers, providing real-time status
updates and alerts for network performance and faults.
 Design issues for the layers
 A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer networks. Some of the
main design issues are as follows:
 1. Reliability
 Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data transfer.
So, an important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred is not distorted.
 2. Scalability
 Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to congestion.
Also, when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead to incompatibility
issues. Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are scalable and can accommodate
such additions and alterations.
 3. Addressing
 At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between large numbers of
computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that each layer can identify the sender
and receivers of each message.
  Error Control
 Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are communicated. So, the layers
need to agree upon common error detection and error correction methods so as to protect data packets while
they are transferred.
 5. Flow Control
 If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at which data is received by the
receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be
implemented.
 6. Resource Allocation
 Computer networks provide services in the form of network resources to the end users. The main design
issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The allocation/deallocation should occur so that
minimal interference among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.
 7. Routing
 There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing involves choosing an optimal path
among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There are several routing algorithms that are used in
network systems.
 8. Security
 A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like eavesdropping and surreptitious
alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to data
through authentication and cryptography.
 Service offered by layers
Connection oriented and connectionless
services
These are the two services given by the layers to
layers above them. These services are:
1.Connection Oriented Service
2.Connectionless Services

Connection Oriented Services

There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of
connection oriented service. These are:
3. Connection is established.
4. Information is sent.
5. Connection is released.
In connection oriented service we have to establish a connection before starting
the communication. When connection is established, we send the message or the
information and then we release the connection
 Connection Less Services
 In Connectionless Services each packets of message are routed independently
from source to destination like our Postal system. In this service, the order of
message sent can be different from the order received. Connectionless services
are preferred where the speed of communication matters more.

 Difference: Connection oriented and Connectionless service

1. In connection oriented service authentication is needed, while connectionless service does not need any
authentication.
2. Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks whether message is received or not and
sends again if an error occurs, while connectionless service protocol does not guarantees a message
delivery.
3. Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.
4. Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is message based.
DIFFERENCE

Feature Connection-Oriented Connectionless

Connection Setup Required Not required
Reliability Reliable Unreliable
Data Delivery Order Guaranteed Not guaranteed
Error Checking Yes Limited
Speed Slower due to overhead Faster
Overhead Higher Lower
Protocols TCP UDP
Use Case Example File transfer, emails Live streaming, gaming
 Service primitives

 A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user process

to access the service. These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an
action taken by a peer entity
1. LISTEN : When a server is ready to accept an incoming connection it executes the LISTEN
primitive. It blocks waiting for an incoming connection.
2. CONNECT : It connects the server by establishing a connection. Response is awaited.
3. RECIEVE: Then the RECIEVE call blocks the server.
4. SEND : Then the client executes SEND primitive to transmit its request followed by the
execution of RECIEVE to get the reply. Send the message.
5. DISCONNECT : This primitive is used for terminating the connection. After this primitive
one can't send any message. When the client sends DISCONNECT packet then the server
also sends the DISCONNECT packet to acknowledge the client.
Primitives of Connection-Oriented Servic
NETWORK MODEL

 A Network Model is a conceptual framework that defines how

different components of a computer network communicate with each
other. It provides a structured approach to understand, design,
implement, and troubleshoot networks by breaking down
communication processes into layers. Each layer focuses on specific
tasks and interacts with adjacent layers.
OSI MODEL

 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that

explains how different computer systems communicate over a network.
 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual
framework that standardizes the functions of a communication system into
seven distinct layers. Each layer is responsible for specific tasks, and
communication between devices happens through a set of well-defined
protocols and functions in each layer. It was developed by ISO
(International Organization for Standardization) to help different
systems communicate effectively.
 This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and
technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for
data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely
used as a reference to understand how network systems function.
2.62

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
 APPLICATION LAYER

•The Application Layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model.

•It provides network services directly to end-users and their applications.
•It ensures that the user interface interacts with the network and enables
communication between software applications and lower layers.
•Common services: Email, web browsing, file transfers, messaging applications
(e.g., WhatsApp, Zoom).
•Protocols: HTTP/HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
 FUNCTIONS OF APPLICATION LAYER

•User Interface:
•Provides a way for users to interact with network services via software applications.
•When we say "a way for users to interact with network services," it means that
the Application Layer provides an interface (a bridge) between you (the user)
and the network.
•The Application Layer ensures you can interact with the network without worrying
about how the data is being sent in the background.
•Example: A messaging app interface where you type your text, add emojis, and send files.
•Data Formatting:
•Prepares data in a format compatible with network protocols and the receiving application.
•A suitable format means putting the data (text, image, video, audio) in a
universally accepted and standardized structure so it can be correctly
interpreted and displayed on the receiver's device, regardless of differences in
operating systems or devices.
•Example: Text is converted into a format suitable for network transfer.
•Service Access:
•Enables access to services like messaging, file transfer, or streaming.
•The Application Layer acts like a service manager, allowing you to access
and use network-based services (file transfer, email services, messaging etc)
•Example: WhatsApp accessing servers to send/receive messages.
•Protocol Implementation:
•Ensures correct communication by adhering to protocols like HTTP, HTTPS, SMTP, etc.
•The Application Layer uses protocols like HTTPS to ensure your WhatsApp
messages remain private, secure, and unaltered while traveling across the
network.
•Example: WhatsApp uses HTTPS for secure communication.
 WHATSAPP ANALOGY
•User Interface (UI):
•The WhatsApp chat screen is an interface where users can type messages, attach media, and click the
send button.
•Example: You type "Hi, how are you?" in the chatbox and click Send.
•Access to Network Services:
•WhatsApp connects to the internet and uses network services (e.g., TCP/IP protocols) to send data to the
recipient.
•Example: When you send a message, the app ensures that it can access the internet and network
services seamlessly.
•Authentication and Encryption:
•WhatsApp uses End-to-End Encryption (E2EE) protocols to ensure only you and the recipient can read
the messages.
•Example: A lock symbol appears on chats, showing encryption is active.
•Formatting Data:
•Your typed text, emojis, or attached photos are formatted into a suitable data structure for transmission.
•Example: Your "Hi 😊" message is converted into an appropriate data format.
•Error Handling:
•If the network fails to send your message, WhatsApp shows an error (e.g., a red exclamation mark).
•Example: "Message not sent. Tap to retry."
PRESENTATION LAYER
 The Presentation Layer is the 6th layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Model, positioned between the Application Layer
(Layer 7) and the Session Layer (Layer 5). It acts as a translator
and formatter for data exchanged between the application and the
network.
 The main role of the Presentation Layer is to ensure that data sent from
the Application Layer of one system can be understood by the
Application Layer of another system.
 Different systems may represent data in different formats. For
example:Text may use ASCII on one system and EBCDIC on another.
Images may be stored as JPEG, PNG, or GIF formats. The Presentation
Layer ensures that these differences are resolved before data is
transmitted.
 In simple terms: It’s like a translator between two people speaking
different languages, ensuring they both understand each other perfectly.
 KEY FUNCTIONS
 a) Data Translation:
• Converts data from application-specific formats into a standardized network
format for transmission.
• At the receiver's end, it converts the data back into a format the application
understands.
• Example: Converting text data into ASCII or Unicode, and image data into JPEG or
PNG formats.
 b) Data Encryption and Decryption:
• Encryption: Converts plain data (readable text) into a secure format (ciphertext)
to protect it during transmission.
• Decryption: Converts ciphertext back into plain text after reaching the destination.
• Common encryption standards include AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) and
SSL/TLS protocols.
 c) Data Compression:
• Reduces the size of data files before transmission to save bandwidth and speed
up communication.
• It is crucial for large files like videos or high-resolution images.
•
WHATSAPP ANALOGY

•Encryption and Decryption:

•WhatsApp uses End-to-End Encryption (E2EE) to ensure your messages are secure.
•Example: When you send "Hi 😊," the text is encrypted into an unreadable format before
transmission.
•On the recipient's side, the data is decrypted back into readable text.
•Data Compression:
•Large files, such as images, videos, or voice notes, are compressed before being sent
to save bandwidth and ensure faster delivery.
•Example: A 10MB video might be compressed to 2MB before being sent.
•Data Formatting:
•Emojis, fonts, and media are formatted into a standard protocol (e.g., UTF-8) that can be
universally understood across different operating systems.
•Example: The emoji 😊 looks the same on both Android and iOS devices because of
standard formatting.
 SESSION LAYER
 The Session Layer is the 5th layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Model. It serves a critical role in managing and controlling the dialogue or session
between two communicating devices. This layer is responsible for establishing,
maintaining, and terminating connections, as well as ensuring proper data exchange
during communication.
 In simpler terms, the Session Layer acts as a manager that organizes and maintains
the conversation between two systems, ensuring everything runs smoothly without
interference.
 The Session Layer controls dialogue management between applications on different
devices. The main functions of the Session Layer include:
• Session establishment: Initiating a connection between two devices.
• Session maintenance: Keeping the communication active during the transfer of data.
• Session termination: Closing the connection when communication is finished.
• Synchronization: It adds checkpoints to data exchanges, ensuring that data can be recovered
if something goes wrong.
 It is important to note that the Session Layer does not deal with data delivery
directly (which is the job of the Transport Layer). Instead, it focuses on coordination of
the interaction between applications on different systems.
 KEY FUNCTIONS
 a) Establishing, Maintaining, and Terminating Sessions
• The Session Layer is responsible for establishing a communication session between two devices (systems).
• Once the session is established, it maintains the connection throughout the data exchange, ensuring continuous
communication.
• It also handles the termination of the session once communication is complete.
 b) Full-Duplex or Half-Duplex Communication
• The Session Layer determines if the communication should be full-duplex (two-way communication
simultaneously) or half-duplex (one-way at a time).
• It ensures that the devices follow the appropriate communication mode.
 c) Dialog Control
• The Session Layer controls the dialogue between the two systems, which can be:
• Simplex (one-way): One device sends data, and the other only receives.
• Half-Duplex (two-way, alternating): One device sends data, then the other sends data.
• Full-Duplex (two-way, simultaneous): Both devices can send and receive data at the same time.
 d) Synchronization
• The Session Layer is responsible for synchronizing data exchange by inserting checkpoints in the data
stream. This is useful in case of interruptions or errors, as the communication can resume from the last
checkpoint.
 e) Dialog Termination
• Once the data exchange is finished, the Session Layer ensures that the session is properly closed and that any
remaining data is transmitted before the connection is terminated.
WHATSAPP ANALOGY
1. Session Establishment:
1. When you start a WhatsApp call or send a message, a session is established
between your device and the recipient's device.
2. Example: Clicking the call button initiates a connection to the recipient.
2. Session Maintenance:
1. The session remains active while your call is ongoing or while a series of messages are
exchanged.
2. Example: During a WhatsApp voice call, the connection remains stable as long as
the call is active.
3. Session Termination:
1. When you end the call or stop sending messages, the session is gracefully
terminated to free up resources.
2. Example: Clicking the red end-call button terminates the session.
4. Synchronization:
1. Ensures the order and reliability of the communication stream.
2. Example: During a long WhatsApp voice note, if the network fluctuates, the session
ensures playback resumes seamlessly from where it stopped.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
 The Transport Layer is the 4th layer of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Model, responsible for providing reliable data transfer between
two devices over a network. It ensures that the data sent from the application layer is
properly delivered to the recipient in the correct order and without errors. The
Transport Layer focuses on end-to-end communication and deals with the
reliability and flow control of data.
 This layer abstracts the details of how data is transmitted, focusing instead on
ensuring that the transmission is successful, efficient, and secure.
 The Transport Layer is primarily responsible for the delivery of messages
between applications running on different devices in a network. It guarantees that
messages are:
• Delivered reliably (error-free and in the correct sequence).
• Flow-controlled (ensuring that the receiver isn’t overwhelmed with too much data).
• Segmented and reassembled (breaking large messages into smaller segments for
transmission and reassembling them at the destination).
 There are two key transport layer protocols:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Connection-oriented, reliable, and ensures error-
free data transmission.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Connectionless, lightweight, and faster but without
 FUNCTIONS
 a) Segmentation and Reassembly
• Segmentation: The Transport Layer takes large chunks of data (from the Application Layer) and
breaks them into smaller segments for efficient transmission.
• Reassembly: When the data reaches the destination, the Transport Layer reassembles the
segments in the correct order to form the complete message.
• Eg: When you send an email with a large file attachment (like a document or a video), the email
is split into smaller segments by the Transport Layer to ensure it can be transmitted over the
network.
 b) Error Detection and Recovery
• The Transport Layer provides error detection and, in the case of connection-oriented protocols like
TCP, it ensures retransmission of lost or corrupted segments. It uses mechanisms like checksums
to detect errors in the transmitted data.
• Eg: Imagine you're downloading an application update on your smartphone. The Transport Layer
(typically using TCP) ensures that the file arrives without errors.
 c) Flow Control
• Flow control is used to prevent congestion by ensuring that the sender doesn’t overwhelm the
receiver with too much data. The Transport Layer uses mechanisms to adjust the rate of data transfer.
 Eg: When you stream a movie on Netflix, the Transport Layer ensures the video plays smoothly by
managing how much data is sent at once.
• Flow Control: If you have a slow internet connection, the Transport Layer will slow down the
rate at which the video is sent to avoid buffering. This prevents the video from being sent too quickly
 d) Connection Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination (For
TCP)
• Connection-Oriented (TCP): Before data transmission begins, a connection is
established between the sender and receiver. This process, called the three-way
handshake, ensures both devices are ready to communicate.
• SYN: Sender sends a synchronization request to establish a connection.
• SYN-ACK: Receiver acknowledges and responds to the synchronization request.
• ACK: Sender acknowledges the connection has been established, and the communication
begins.
• After the data transfer, the connection is terminated using a four-way handshake.
 e) Multiplexing
• The Transport Layer enables multiplexing, which allows multiple applications or
services to run simultaneously on a single device, each using a different port
number. It ensures that data is delivered to the correct application or service.
 Example (WhatsApp):
While using WhatsApp, you might also be receiving data from another app (e.g.,
browsing a website). The Transport Layer uses different port numbers to
ensure the data goes to the right application (WhatsApp for messages/calls, browser
for web data).
 WHATSAPP ANALOGY

•Segmentation and Reassembly:

•If you send a long voice note or large video file, the Transport Layer breaks it into smaller
chunks (segments) for smoother transmission.
•At the recipient's end, the segments are reassembled into the original voice note or video.
•Reliable Delivery:
•The Transport Layer uses acknowledgments (ACKs) to ensure each segment has been
received successfully.
•Example: If a voice note segment is lost, the Transport Layer requests retransmission of that
segment.
•Error Detection and Correction:
•If a segment gets corrupted during transmission, the Transport Layer detects the error and
retransmits it.
•Flow Control:
•If your friend’s phone is slow or has limited bandwidth, the Transport Layer adjusts the data
flow rate to prevent overwhelming their device.
 NETWORK LAYER
 The Network Layer (Layer 3) is primarily responsible for routing data
between devices across different networks. It ensures that data is transferred
from the sender to the receiver, even if they are on different physical or
logical networks, by determining the best path for the data to travel. This
layer plays a critical role in addressing, routing, and forwarding packets
of data to their destination.
 FUNCTIONS
•Routing:
•The Network Layer is responsible for determining the best path for data to travel from the sender to
the receiver. This involves choosing the most efficient route through intermediate devices such as
routers.
•Routing can be based on static routes or dynamic routing protocols like OSPF, RIP, or BGP, which
adapt to network changes.
•Logical Addressing:
•It assigns logical addresses to devices on the network, which are typically IP addresses (IPv4 or
IPv6). These addresses help uniquely identify devices across the internet or within a local network.
•IP addresses are used to determine the source and destination of the data packets.
•Packet Forwarding:
•Once the path is determined, the Network Layer is responsible for forwarding data packets along this
path. Routers make forwarding decisions based on the IP address in the packet's header and use
routing tables to forward the data to the correct next hop.
•Fragmentation and Reassembly:
•The Network Layer may be responsible for fragmenting large data packets into smaller ones if the
network's maximum transmission unit (MTU) is smaller than the packet's size. These fragments are
later reassembled at the destination.
 WHATSAPP ANALOGY

•Logical Addressing:
•Every device using WhatsApp has a unique IP address.
•The Network Layer ensures data packets are addressed to the correct IP address of the
recipient's device.
•Routing:
•If your friend is in another city or country, the Network Layer finds the optimal route across
multiple routers to deliver the message.
•Example: Your WhatsApp message travels across various networks (ISP routers, regional
routers) before reaching your friend.
•Packet Forwarding:
•Each router forwards the packet closer to its destination IP address based on routing tables.
•Fragmentation:
•If the data packet is too large for a specific network, it’s split into smaller fragments for
smooth delivery.
 NETWORK VS TRANSPORT LAYER

Aspect Transport Layer (Layer 4) Network Layer (Layer 3)

End-to-end communication (from Hop-by-hop communication (through routers

Scope
sender to receiver) across networks)

Ensures reliable data transfer and Routes packets to the destination, but doesn't
Focus
error-free communication ensure reliable transfer

End-to-end reliability (error correction, Routing data through multiple networks and
Responsibility
flow control, etc.) determining the best path

TCP, UDP (TCP is reliable, connection- IP (IPv4, IPv6), Routing protocols (e.g., OSPF,
Protocols
oriented) BGP)

Establish and maintain a connection, Ensure correct routing of data through

Main Function
ensure correct delivery multiple networks
DATA LINK LAYER

 The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) is the second layer in the OSI model. It
is responsible for the reliable transmission of data over a physical
link, ensuring that the data is transferred accurately between devices on
the same network. This layer defines how data should be formatted for
transmission over the physical medium and manages error detection
and correction, as well as flow control.
 FUNCTIONS OF DLL
 Framing:
• The Data Link Layer is responsible for dividing the raw bits from the Physical Layer into
frames. A frame is a structured block of data that includes both the data being sent
(payload) and the necessary information to ensure successful transmission (such as the
header, trailer, and error-checking information).
• Frame Format: It typically includes the header, which holds the address of the source and
destination devices, and the trailer, which contains error-checking information like the CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check).
 Error Detection and Correction:
• The Data Link Layer ensures that data is transmitted without errors by adding error-
checking mechanisms like CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check). If errors are detected in the
received data, the layer can request a retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• Error Detection: It uses checksums or CRC to detect if the data was modified or corrupted
during transmission.
• Error Correction: In some protocols, the Data Link Layer may also correct errors
automatically if they are detected (using techniques like ARQ - Automatic Repeat reQuest).
 Flow Control:
• The Data Link Layer also deals with flow control, which helps prevent data
overload at the receiving end. It ensures that the sender doesn’t overwhelm the
receiver with more frames than it can handle at a given time. This is particularly
important in high-speed networks where the sender might be much faster than the
receiver.
• Flow control mechanisms like stop-and-wait and sliding window can be used to
manage the rate at which data frames are sent.
 Media Access Control (MAC):
• The Data Link Layer is also responsible for controlling access to the shared
communication medium. The MAC sublayer manages how devices on the same
network can send data and avoid collisions when multiple devices try to send data
simultaneously.
• Two common mechanisms are used:
• Ethernet uses a CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) protocol, where devices listen for traffic and only transmit if the channel is
free.
• In wireless networks, the CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance) protocol is used to avoid collisions.
 .
 Addressing:
• The Data Link Layer uses physical addresses (MAC addresses) to identify
devices on a local network. Each device on a network has a unique MAC
address, which is used to ensure that frames are delivered to the correct
device within the local network
 Link Establishment and Termination:
• The Data Link Layer handles the establishment, maintenance, and
termination of communication links between devices on the same network.
This involves ensuring that the devices are ready for data transmission before
sending frames and closing the connection once the communication is
complete.
 Data Link Layer in the Context of WhatsApp
Message Transmission:
1. Framing:
1. The WhatsApp message you send (text, video, etc.) gets divided into frames by the Data
Link Layer. These frames contain information like the MAC address of your device and the
recipient’s device.
2. Error Detection and Correction:
1. The frames containing your WhatsApp message will be checked for errors. If any frame is
corrupted, the Data Link Layer will request a retransmission of that frame.
3. Flow Control:
1. If the receiver’s device (your friend’s phone) is not able to handle the message speed, the
Data Link Layer might slow down the transmission of frames, ensuring that it doesn’t
overwhelm the receiving device.
4. MAC Protocol:
1. When you send your WhatsApp message over Wi-Fi, your phone will use a MAC protocol
(like CSMA/CA) to ensure that it doesn’t interfere with other devices on the same network.
5. Addressing:
1. The WhatsApp message will be sent to the MAC address of the Wi-Fi router or your
friend's device, ensuring that it reaches the correct destination on the local network.
 SEGMENT, PACKET, FRAME
 SEGMENT: Data is divided into segments to ensure reliable and ordered
delivery between sender and receiver.
 PACKET: Packets carry data across different networks. Each packet contains
logical addressing information (e.g., IP address) for routing.
 FRAME: Frames are responsible for node-to-node delivery within the same
local network. Each frame contains physical addressing information (e.g., MAC
address).
 Analogy: Sending a Letter
1. Segment: The content of your letter is divided into chapters (segments).
2. Packet: Each chapter is placed into an envelope (packet) with a delivery
address.
3. Frame: The envelope is put into a delivery bag (frame) with a local address
tag for the postal worker to deliver locally.
4. Bits: The bag is handed over to the postal system (bits transmitted
physically).
 Physical Layer (Layer 1):
The Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model, directly dealing with the hardware and
physical connection between devices. It focuses on the actual transmission of raw bits (0s and 1s)
over a physical medium, such as cables, wireless signals, or optical fibers.
 Purpose of the Physical Layer
• Transmission of Raw Data: Converts digital data (0s and 1s) from higher layers into electrical,
optical, or radio signals for physical transmission.
• Defines Physical Medium: Specifies the type of cables (Ethernet, fiber optics), wireless frequencies
(Wi-Fi, Bluetooth), or connectors used.
• Bit Synchronization: Ensures the sender and receiver are synchronized so that bits are interpreted
correctly.
• Data Rate Control: Determines how fast data can be transmitted over the physical medium (e.g.,
Mbps or Gbps).
• Physical Topology: Defines how devices are physically arranged in a network (e.g., Star, Bus, Ring
topology).
• Transmission Mode: Specifies the mode of data transmission:
• Simplex: Data flows in one direction only.
• Half-duplex: Data flows in both directions, but only one side can transmit at a time.
• Full-duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
FUNCTIONS
 A. Data Encoding
• Converts the digital data (0s and 1s) into electrical, optical, or radio signals for
transmission.
• Example: Ethernet cables use voltage levels to represent binary data.
 📊 B. Transmission Medium Selection
• Determines whether data will travel via wired (Ethernet, fiber-optic cables) or
wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) mediums.
• Example: Ethernet cables are commonly used for wired connections, while Wi-Fi uses
radio frequencies.
 📊 C. Signal Synchronization
• Ensures that the sender and receiver's clocks are in sync to correctly interpret the
bits being sent.
• Example: A mismatch in synchronization can cause bits to be misinterpreted.
 📊 D. Bit Representation
• Ensures the correct representation of 0s and 1s in terms of voltage levels, light
pulses, or radio signals.
• Example: In optical fiber cables, light pulses represent binary data.
• 📊 E. Transmission Modes
• Defines whether data is sent one-way (simplex), alternating directions (half-
duplex), or both directions simultaneously (full-duplex).
• Example: Walkie-talkies are half-duplex, while phone calls are full-duplex.
 📊 F. Physical Topology
• Describes the physical layout of devices in the network.
• Common topologies include:
• Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub.
• Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication line.
• Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular manner.
 REAL LIFE ANALOGY
 Postal System Example:
• Think of the Physical Layer as the roads and vehicles used to deliver a parcel.
• The parcel (data in binary form) is carried via trucks, ships, or airplanes
(wired or wireless mediums).
• Without roads (physical connections) or proper vehicles (transmission mediums),
the parcel cannot travel from one city to another.
 📲 WhatsApp Example:
• Imagine you're using Wi-Fi to send a WhatsApp message.
• The radio signals transmitted from your Wi-Fi router represent the Physical Layer.
• These signals carry the binary data of your message to your ISP's router.
• Similarly, if you're using mobile data (4G/5G), the cellular network converts your
data into radio signals and sends them to the cell tower.
APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS

•HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) – Web browsing.

•HTTPS (HTTP Secure) – Secure web browsing.
•FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – File transfer.
•SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) – Email sending.
•POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3) – Email retrieval.
•IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) – Email management.
•DNS (Domain Name System) – Domain name resolution.
•Telnet – Remote login.
•SSH (Secure Shell) – Secure remote login.
•SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) – Network device management.
 PRESENTATION LAYER PROTOCOLS

•SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) – Encryption.

•TLS (Transport Layer Security) – Secure data transmission.
•MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) – Email attachments encoding.
•JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) – Image compression.
•GIF (Graphics Interchange Format) – Image format.
•ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) – Text encoding.
•MP4 (MPEG-4 Video Compression) – Video compression.
SESSION LAYER PROTOCOL

•RPC (Remote Procedure Call) – Remote access protocol.

•NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) – Session management in local
networks.
•PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol) – VPN tunneling.
•SMB (Server Message Block) – File sharing.
TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOL

•TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Reliable data transmission.

•UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Faster but unreliable transmission.
•SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange) – Reliable data delivery.
•SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) – Reliable transport for
telecommunication networks.
NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS

•IP (Internet Protocol) – Logical addressing and routing.

•ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – Error reporting.
•ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) – IP to MAC address resolution.
•RIP (Routing Information Protocol) – Dynamic routing protocol.
•OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) – Routing protocol.
•BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) – Inter-network routing.
DATA LINK LAYER PROTOCOL

•Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) – Wired LAN connections.

•Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) – Wireless LAN connections.
•PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) – Direct connection between two network nodes.
•HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) – Data transmission in point-to-point
connections.
•Frame Relay – WAN data link layer protocol.
•MAC (Media Access Control) – Addressing devices in a local network.
PHYSICAL LAYER

•Ethernet Cables (Cat5, Cat6) – Wired network connections.

•Wi-Fi Frequencies (2.4GHz, 5GHz) – Wireless connections.
•Bluetooth – Short-range wireless communication.
•DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) – Internet over phone lines.
•Fiber Optic Cables – High-speed data transmission.
•Infrared Signals – Remote control devices.
 ADVANTAGES OF OSI MODEL
•Standardization:
•The OSI model provides a clear, standardized framework that helps in designing network protocols. It helps
ensure that different networking products from various manufacturers can work together.
•Troubleshooting and Problem Isolation:
•The separation of functions into different layers makes it easier to troubleshoot network issues. Each layer
can be tested independently, and problems can be isolated to a specific layer.
•Modular Approach:
•The OSI model allows for flexibility and modularity. Each layer is independent, which means changes or
upgrades to one layer (like protocols) can be made without affecting the other layers.
•Helps in Network Design:
•The OSI model acts as a blueprint for designing new networking protocols. By defining the functions of each
layer, the model guides the creation of new protocols that can fit into the system.
•Facilitates Learning and Understanding:
•It helps students and professionals understand networking concepts in a structured and organized way, which
can be easier to grasp.
•Promotes Interoperability:
•OSI encourages interoperability between different systems and networks. Since the model is not tied to any
particular technology or implementation, it supports communication across different platforms.
 DISADVANTAGES OF OSI MODEL
•Too Theoretical:
•The OSI model is more of a conceptual framework and not something used directly in real-world networks. It is often
criticized for not being practical enough and for being more of a teaching tool rather than a model actually implemented
in real systems.
•Complexity:
•The seven-layer model can be overly complex for practical applications. In real-life implementations, many of these
layers are combined or handled differently (for example, the Transport and Network layers may have overlapping
responsibilities in the TCP/IP model).
•Doesn't Reflect Actual Protocols:
•The OSI model doesn’t exactly map to the current internet protocols (like TCP/IP). For example, in the OSI model,
the Session Layer is separate, but in the TCP/IP model, its functions are combined with other layers like the
Application Layer.
•Redundancy:
•Some of the layers in OSI do not map directly to practical protocols or technologies, leading to redundancy. For
example, layers like Presentation Layer and Session Layer are not as distinct in real-world implementations as they
are in the OSI model.
•Outdated for Modern Networking:
•The OSI model was developed in the 1980s, and while it provided an excellent framework at the time, it doesn't
account for newer networking technologies and trends such as cloud computing, wireless networking, or mobile
networks.
•Lack of Specificity:
•The OSI model does not specify exact protocols for each layer, leaving room for multiple interpretations of what each
layer should do. In real implementations, this can lead to inconsistencies across different systems.
TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

 The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking.

It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are
the core protocols of the Internet. This model defines how data is
transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication between
devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the
Transport Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific
functions that help manage different aspects of network communication,
making it essential for understanding and working with modern
networks.
 TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense
(DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP
model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers,
unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
APPLICATION LAYER

•The Application Layer is responsible for enabling network applications and end-
user processes to interact with each other.
•It serves as the entry point for data to be transmitted across the network.
•This layer ensures that data is properly formatted, meaningful, and ready for the
user.
 Key Responsibilities of the Application Layer
 a. Network Resource Access
• Provides access to network resources such as file transfer, remote login, and
network printing.
• Example: Accessing files on a network drive.
 📝 b. User Interface and Human Interaction
• Acts as an interface between the user and network services.
• Allows users to interact with network-based applications seamlessly.
• Example: Web browsers (Google Chrome, Firefox) provide an interface to access
websites.
 📝 c. Data Representation and Formatting
• Ensures that the data is in a format that the application or user can understand.
• Handles tasks like text formatting, encryption, and compression.
• Example: Formatting an email message in SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
 📝 d. Communication and Session Management
• Initiates, manages, and terminates communication sessions between
devices.
• Provides authentication and data integrity during communication.
• Example: Logging into a remote desktop application securely.
 📝 e. Network Transparency
• Hides the underlying network details from the user.
• Users don’t need to know how data packets are routed; they only see the end
result.
• Example: When using WhatsApp, users just see “Message Sent” without
worrying about how the message traveled.
 Protocols in the Application Layer
Protocol Full Form Purpose Example Use Case

HTTP/HTTPS Hypertext Transfer Protocol Web Browsing Accessing websites

FTP File Transfer Protocol File Transfer Downloading files

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Email Sending Sending emails

Post Office Protocol/Internet Message

POP3/IMAP Email Retrieval Checking inbox
Access Protocol

DNS Domain Name System Name Resolution Converting URLs to IP

SSH Secure Shell Remote Access Secure remote login

Remote Access
Telnet Terminal Network Remote login
(less secure)

Network
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol Monitoring devices
Management
WhatsApp Analogy for Application Layer

 When you send a message on WhatsApp, the Application Layer performs the
following:
1. User Interface: You type your message and click "Send" on WhatsApp’s user-friendly
interface.
2. Protocol Selection: WhatsApp uses HTTPS protocol to ensure the data is securely
sent to its server.
3. Formatting and Encryption: The message is formatted and encrypted for secure
transfer.
4. Request Sent: The formatted message is handed over to the Transport Layer for
segmentation.
5. Message Delivered: On the recipient's device, the Application Layer decodes the
message and displays it in a readable format.
 In short: The Application Layer ensures you can send, receive, and view messages
seamlessly without worrying about the technical details of data transmission.
TRANSPORT LAYER

• The Transport Layer ensures reliable and error-free data delivery

from the source to the destination device across the network.
• It acts as an intermediary between the Application Layer (where
user interactions happen) and the Network Layer (which routes the
data).
• This layer breaks down data from the **Application Layer into smaller
units called segments and ensures they are transmitted, received,
and reassembled correctly at the destination.
 FUNCTIONS
 📝 a. Segmentation and Reassembly
• Segmentation: The Transport Layer breaks large data received from the Application Layer
into smaller, manageable segments.
• Reassembly: On the receiving end, it reassembles these segments in the correct order to
recreate the original data.
• Example: A large video file is divided into smaller packets for transmission.
 📝 b. End-to-End Communication
• Provides a logical communication channel between the source application and the
destination application.
• Ensures data is transferred directly between the two end devices, regardless of
intermediate network devices.
• Example: Streaming a movie on Netflix ensures the video data is reliably delivered from
Netflix servers to your device.
 📝 c. Reliability and Error Control
• Ensures error-free delivery of data using acknowledgments (ACKs) and retransmissions
if errors are detected.
• Uses checksums to detect corrupted data during transit.
• Example: If a segment is lost or corrupted during a video call, the Transport Layer detects it
and requests retransmission.
 📝 d. Flow Control
• Prevents overloading the receiving device by ensuring that the sender does
not send data faster than the receiver can process.
• Techniques like Sliding Window Protocol and Stop-and-Wait Protocol are
used.
• Example: If your phone’s network is slow while downloading a file, the sender
adjusts the data transfer speed.
 📝 e. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to send and receive data
simultaneously over the network.
• Demultiplexing: Ensures the received data is delivered to the correct
application on the destination device.
• Example: Downloading a file while watching a YouTube video—both processes
share the network connection but don’t interfere with each other.
 📝 f. Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless Communication
• Connection-Oriented (TCP): Establishes a reliable connection before data
transfer starts. Example: Video call.
• Connectionless (UDP): Sends data without establishing a connection.
Example: Live video streaming.
PROTOCOLS

Protocol Full Form Type Use Case

Web Browsing,
Transmission Connection-
TCP Email, File
Control Protocol Oriented
Transfer
User Datagram Live Streaming,
UDP Connectionless
Protocol VoIP Calls
Stream Control
Connection-
SCTP Transmission Signaling in VoIP
Oriented
Protocol
Real-Time
Audio and Video
RTP Transport Connectionless
Streaming
Protocol
✅ How the Transport Layer Works

 📦 Sender Side:
1. Data from the Application Layer is segmented into smaller chunks.
2. Each segment is labeled with sequence numbers for reassembly at the receiver’s end.
3. If using TCP, a connection is established before data transfer begins.
4. The segments are passed down to the Network Layer for routing.
 📦 Receiver Side:
1. Segments received from the Network Layer are checked for errors.
2. The data is reassembled in the correct order using sequence numbers.
3. Acknowledgments (ACKs) are sent back to the sender for successfully received
segments.
4. Once all segments are reassembled, the complete data is passed to the Application
Layer.
TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol)
 🚦 Overview:
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. This means a connection is
established and maintained between the sender and receiver until all
data has been successfully transmitted.
• It ensures reliable data delivery, meaning that every piece of data (or
segment) sent will be acknowledged by the receiver, and if any data is
lost, it will be retransmitted.
🔑 Key Features of TCP:
1. Connection-Oriented:
1. Before sending any data, TCP establishes a connection between the sender
and receiver through a process called the Three-Way Handshake.
2. This process ensures that both sides are ready for communication.
2. Reliability:
1. TCP guarantees that data will be delivered without errors, in the correct order.
If any segments are lost, they will be retransmitted.
2. ACKs (Acknowledgments) are sent for received segments, and if the
sender doesn’t receive an acknowledgment, it will resend the segment.
3. Error Checking:
1. Checksums are used to detect errors in the transmitted data. If the receiver
finds an error, it requests the sender to resend the data.
4. Flow Control:
1. TCP uses mechanisms like Sliding Window Protocol to manage data flow and
prevent congestion. It ensures the sender doesn’t overwhelm the receiver by
sending too much data too quickly.
5. Segmentation and Reassembly:
1. Large chunks of data are divided into smaller segments. These segments are
transmitted and then reassembled at the receiver's end to reconstruct the
original data.
6. Ordered Delivery:
1. TCP ensures that data segments are delivered in the exact order they were
sent. If any segments arrive out of order, TCP will reorder them before passing
them to the application layer.
7. Congestion Control:
1. TCP uses algorithms like slow start and congestion avoidance to detect and
handle network congestion. This helps in adjusting the speed of data
transmission to avoid overwhelming the network.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

 🚦 Overview:
• UDP is a connectionless protocol. This means that data is sent without
establishing a connection and there is no acknowledgment mechanism
to guarantee the successful delivery of data.
• It is much faster than TCP but unreliable.
 🔑 Key Features of UDP:

1. Connectionless:
1. There is no need to establish a connection between the sender and receiver. UDP simply sends data
packets (called datagrams) to the receiver without ensuring that they are ready to receive them.
2. Unreliable:
1. UDP does not guarantee that the data will be delivered or that it will be delivered in the correct order.
There are no acknowledgments or retransmissions if packets are lost or corrupted.
2. It is used for applications where speed is more important than reliability.
3. No Flow Control:
1. UDP does not provide flow control. The sender is free to send data as quickly as possible, without
considering whether the receiver can handle it.
4. Faster Than TCP:
1. Because UDP does not have the overhead of establishing connections, error-checking,
acknowledgments, or retransmissions, it is much faster than TCP.
5. Simple Protocol:
1. UDP has a very simple header and is easy to implement. There’s no connection setup or teardown,
making it suitable for high-speed applications.
6. Used for Real-Time Applications:
1. UDP is ideal for real-time applications where speed is crucial, and occasional data loss is acceptable
(e.g., streaming or gaming).
4. When to Use TCP vs UDP?

• Use TCP when reliability is crucial and you need the assurance that
data is delivered correctly, in order, and without loss. Common use
cases:
• Web browsing (HTTP)
• File transfers (FTP)
• Email (SMTP)
• Remote login (Telnet, SSH)
• Use UDP when speed is the priority and occasional data loss is
acceptable. Common use cases:
• Real-time applications (VoIP, Video Conferencing)
• Streaming (Video, Audio)
• Online gaming
• DNS queries
 TCP VS UDP
Feature TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Connection-Oriented (requires establishing a
Connection Type Connectionless (no need to establish a connection)
connection)
Reliable (ensures data is delivered in order without
Reliability Unreliable (no guarantee of data delivery or order)
errors)
Data Delivery Guarantees delivery of data with acknowledgment
No guarantee of delivery or acknowledgment
Guarantee (ACK)
Provides error detection and correction (e.g., checksum,
Error Handling No built-in error correction or acknowledgment
retransmission)
No flow control (does not manage congestion or
Flow Control Yes, uses mechanisms like sliding window protocol
receiver's capacity)
Transmission Slower due to additional overhead (connection setup, Faster due to low overhead (no connection setup or
Speed acknowledgment, retransmission) retransmission)
Data is divided into segments for transmission and Data is divided into datagrams and sent
Data Segmentation
reassembled at the destination independently
Acknowledgment Sends acknowledgment (ACK) for received data No acknowledgment for received data
Suitable for real-time applications where speed
Suitable for applications requiring reliable data transfer
Use Case matters and data loss is acceptable (e.g., video
(e.g., web browsing, email, file transfer)
streaming, online gaming, VoIP)
Examples HTTP, FTP, SMTP, Telnet, SSH DNS, DHCP, VoIP, Video Streaming
Higher due to connection establishment, error checking, Lower due to no connection establishment or
Overhead
and flow control acknowledgment
Ordering of Data Ensures data is delivered in the correct order Does not ensure ordered delivery
Yes, TCP adjusts data transmission rate based on
Congestion Control No congestion control mechanism
network congestion
Header Size 20 bytes (plus additional options) 8 bytes (smaller header)
NETWORK/INTERNET LAYER

 The Network Layer is the third layer of the OSI model and is
responsible for the transmission of data packets from the source to the
destination across multiple networks. This layer operates in both
connectionless and connection-oriented modes, depending on the
protocol being used. The primary function of the network layer is to
determine the best path for data to travel, ensure its delivery, and
handle routing.
 Key Functions of the Network Layer:

1. Routing:
1. Routing is the process of determining the best path for data packets to travel from the
source to the destination across one or more networks. This is done by routers, which
operate at the network layer.
2. Routing can be static or dynamic:
1. Static routing: Predefined paths are manually set by the network administrator.
2. Dynamic routing: Routers dynamically calculate the best path based on current network
conditions, using routing protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF, BGP).

2. Packet Forwarding:
1. Once the path is determined, the packet forwarding function comes into play. Data
packets are forwarded from one router to the next until they reach their final destination.
Routers do this by examining the destination IP address of the packet and forwarding it
toward the destination network.
3. Logical Addressing:
1. At the network layer, devices are assigned logical addresses (usually IP addresses). This
logical addressing allows devices to be identified across different networks and enables
routing between devices in different geographical locations.
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) are the most widely
used protocols for logical addressing.
4. Fragmentation and Reassembly:
1. When a data packet is too large for the network (for example, when it exceeds the
Maximum Transmission Unit or MTU of the network), the network layer fragments
the packet into smaller pieces.
2. These smaller pieces (called fragments) are sent separately, and once they reach
the destination, they are reassembled back into the original data packet. This
ensures that large packets can be transmitted even over networks with smaller
MTUs.
5. Error Handling:
1. While error detection is primarily handled at lower layers (such as the data link
layer), the network layer may be responsible for discarding corrupted or
unreachable packets. If a packet is undeliverable, the network layer may send a
notification to the sender, depending on the protocol being used (e.g., ICMP for error
reporting).
6. Congestion Control:
1. The network layer can also assist in managing network congestion by rerouting
traffic or applying policies to prevent overload. However, this function is often
handled by higher layers in practice.
7. Encapsulation:
1. The network layer takes data from the transport layer and adds a network layer
header to create a packet. This header typically contains the source IP address
and the destination IP address. This encapsulation allows the packet to be routed
across different networks.
 Protocols at the Network Layer:

• IP (Internet Protocol): This is the most important protocol at the network layer.
It defines the addressing scheme and is responsible for routing packets across
networks. There are two main versions:
• IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): The most widely used version, using 32-bit
addressing.
• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): An updated version using 128-bit addressing to
overcome the limitations of IPv4.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for diagnostic and error-
reporting purposes. It is most commonly seen in ping and traceroute utilities.
ICMP helps in error reporting and control messages.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): ARP maps a 32-bit IP address to a MAC
(Media Access Control) address on the local network. It works at both the network
and data link layers.
• Routing Protocols: These protocols help routers determine the best path for
forwarding data across networks. Examples include:
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
• BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)
IP PROTOCOL

 The IP protocol operates in a connectionless and unreliable manner,

meaning that it does not establish a dedicated end-to-end connection
before sending data and does not guarantee the delivery of data
packets. It simply provides a way to send data from one host to another.
For reliable communication, the transport layer protocols (such as TCP)
are used in conjunction with IP.
 IP is primarily concerned with the logical addressing and routing of
data across interconnected networks, forming the backbone of the
internet and most private networks.
 FUNCTIONS

•Logical Addressing:
•IP addresses are used to uniquely identify devices on a network. These addresses are assigned
to each device (such as a computer, router, or server) connected to a network. IP addressing allows
devices to find each other and communicate.
•There are two major versions of the IP address:
•IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): Uses 32-bit addresses, resulting in about 4.3 billion
unique IP addresses.
•IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): Uses 128-bit addresses, offering an extremely large
number of IP addresses to meet the demands of a growing number of devices.
•Routing:
•The IP protocol is responsible for routing packets of data across networks, ensuring they travel from
the source to the destination by determining the best possible path. This is done by routers, which
examine the IP address in the packet header and forward the packet to the next router or the
destination.
•Routers use routing tables and routing protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF, BGP) to make decisions about
which path the packet should take.
•Fragmentation and Reassembly:
•IP is responsible for fragmenting large data packets into smaller pieces (fragments) if they
exceed the Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of the network. Each fragment is sent
separately and may take different routes to the destination.
•Once the fragments reach the destination, the receiving device reassembles them to
reconstruct the original packet.
•Packet Forwarding:
•When a packet is sent from one device to another, it is forwarded from one router to the
next, using the IP address in the packet's header. Routers are responsible for determining
the best route based on their routing tables.
•Best-Effort Delivery:
•IP is a best-effort protocol, meaning it does not guarantee packet delivery, order, or error
checking. If a packet is lost or corrupted, it is up to higher layers (like the transport layer) to
handle errors and retransmission.
NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

 The Network Access Layer (often referred to as the Link Layer) is the
lowest layer of the TCP/IP reference model. It is responsible for the
physical transmission of data over the network, providing the
mechanisms to transfer data between devices on the same network.
This layer essentially defines how data is transmitted over different
types of physical media such as Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, and fiber
optics.
 It combines the functions of both the Data Link Layer and the
Physical Layer from the OSI model, making it crucial for managing
how devices communicate over a network.
 Key Functions of the Network Access Layer

1. Framing:
1. Data is transmitted in the form of frames. The Network Access Layer encapsulates higher-layer data
into frames that can be transmitted over the physical medium.
2. A frame typically contains:
1. Header: Includes important information such as source and destination MAC addresses.
2. Payload: The actual data being sent.
3. Trailer: Error detection and other control information (e.g., a checksum or Frame Check Sequence (FCS)).

2. Addressing:
1. At the Network Access Layer, addressing is done using MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
Every device on the network (e.g., computers, routers, switches) has a unique MAC address assigned
to its network interface card (NIC). This address is used to direct frames to the correct device on the
local network.
2. The MAC address is 48 bits long and is usually represented in hexadecimal format.
3. Error Detection:
1. The Network Access Layer performs error detection on the transmitted frames using techniques such
as CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) or checksum.
2. If errors are detected in a frame (due to noise, signal loss, or collisions), it is typically discarded, and the
data needs to be retransmitted (this might be handled by higher layers like the Transport Layer, such as
in the case of TCP).
4. Access Control:
1. The Network Access Layer manages access to the shared physical medium,
ensuring that multiple devices can send and receive data without interfering with
each other. This is especially important in shared media (like Wi-Fi).
2. It handles Media Access Control (MAC) protocols, such as Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) for Ethernet or Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) for Wi-Fi. These
protocols ensure devices only transmit data when the network is clear.
5. Physical Layer Interaction:
1. The Network Access Layer interacts with the Physical Layer to convert frames
into signals that can travel over the network medium (such as electrical signals
over copper cables, optical signals over fiber, or radio waves in wireless networks).
2. The Physical Layer is concerned with the actual physical medium (wires,
wireless radio frequencies, etc.) and the transmission of bits as electrical or optical
signals. The Network Access Layer helps convert frames into these signals.
6. Flow Control:
1. In some cases, the Network Access Layer may also perform simple flow control to
ensure that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with data. This is more
common in technologies like Ethernet.
 OSI VS TCP/IP
Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Developed to guide the design and implementation of

Designed as a theoretical model to standardize
Purpose the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP), the basis for
networking and encourage interoperability.
modern internet communication.

Has a more granular and structured layering (7 layers)

Layered
compared to the more simplified 4 layers of the TCP/IP Has fewer layers, combining some OSI layers.
Approach
model.

Application The Application, Presentation, and Session layers Merges all three layers (Application, Presentation, and
Layer are distinct. Session) into one "Application" layer.

Provides a comprehensive approach to network

Focuses on the specific protocols, mainly TCP/IP,
Communication communication, emphasizing distinct protocols and
which provide practical networking functions.
services.
More general; does not emphasize specific protocols,
Protocol Specifically oriented around practical implementation
but aims to define functions and services needed at
Orientation of protocols, most notably TCP, IP, UDP, etc.
each layer.
It is a conceptual framework and not widely used for Directly used in real-world networks, specifically the
Implementation
actual implementation. internet.
More emphasis on reliable connections and error
Reliability and error control are handled specifically at
Reliability control at each layer (e.g., Session and Transport
the Transport Layer (TCP).
layers).
Specifically designed for the Internet Protocol
Allows for a wide variety of protocols to be
Flexibility Suite and is more tightly focused on practical
implemented at each layer, which provides flexibility.
networking.
 ADVANTAGES OF TCP/IP MODEL
•Practical Implementation:
•The TCP/IP model is widely used in real-world networks, particularly for internet communication. It is the foundation of the internet
and supports the most widely adopted networking protocols like HTTP, FTP, TCP, IP, UDP, and others.
•Simplicity and Efficiency:
•The model uses only four layers (compared to OSI's seven), making it simpler to understand and implement. This simplification is
particularly beneficial for practical applications in large-scale systems like the internet.
•Interoperability:
•The TCP/IP model facilitates interoperability between various types of devices and platforms. It allows different devices, networks,
and operating systems to communicate with each other, which is critical for the functioning of the global internet.
•Flexibility and Scalability:
•TCP/IP protocols are highly scalable. The internet's exponential growth and the ability to connect millions of devices worldwide are
made possible because of the scalability of the TCP/IP model.
•Error Handling and Reliability:
•The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides mechanisms for error detection, retransmission, and data integrity, ensuring
reliable communication across networks.
•Real-World Relevance:
•TCP/IP protocols are used in almost all modern networking, including private networks, public internet communication, and
enterprise-level systems, making it the most practical and relevant model in use.
•Resource Availability:
•Since TCP/IP is widely adopted, there is a large number of tools, documentation, and expertise available to developers, administrators,
and engineers working with this model.
•Global Adoption:
•TCP/IP is the basis of the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW). This universal standard allows for global communication across
networks without the need for compatibility issues.
 DISADVANTAGES OF TCP/IP MODEL
•Less Conceptual Clarity:
•The TCP/IP model combines functions of several OSI layers into fewer layers, which can lead to less conceptual
clarity. For instance, the Application Layer in TCP/IP combines the functionalities of the OSI's Application,
Presentation, and Session Layers, making it more difficult to understand the distinct roles of these layers.
•Limited to Network Communication:
•While the TCP/IP model is excellent for network communication, it does not account for non-network aspects of
communication, such as the data structure, encryption methods, or complex communication protocols, which are
more clearly defined in the OSI model.
•Lack of Detailed Specifications:
•The TCP/IP model does not provide the level of detailed, layered specification that the OSI model does. This means
it does not specify every single aspect of network communication, leaving more room for flexibility, but also for ambiguity
in implementation.
•No Clear Separation of Layers:
•Unlike the OSI model, the layers in the TCP/IP model are less distinct. The Application Layer in TCP/IP often deals
with tasks that would be handled separately by the Application, Session, and Presentation Layers in the OSI model,
leading to confusion in understanding the individual tasks being performed at each level.
•Can Be Overwhelming for Beginners:
•Due to the combination of layers and various protocols within the TCP/IP suite, it may be difficult for beginners to
understand the full extent of what happens in a network communication process. There’s no strict separation of duties
as in the OSI model, which can make troubleshooting and learning more complex for novices.
•Less Structured for Teaching:
•While the TCP/IP model is designed for practical use, the lack of distinct and isolated layers can make it harder to
teach networking concepts in a clear, organized manner, especially for beginners who are learning how data flows
through networks.
 Examples of network
 Internet

 Internet is defined as an Information super

Highway, to access information over the web.
However, It can be defined in many ways as
follows:
 Internet is a world-wide global system of
interconnected computer networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique
IP address.
 The Internet is a massive network that connects millions of private, public,
academic, business, and government networks across the globe. It allows
users to share and access information, communicate, and use services such
as email, online shopping, social media, and more. The Internet relies on a
standardized set of protocols (TCP/IP) to ensure data can travel between
devices, no matter their location or type.
 It is often referred to as the "Network of Networks" because it interlinks
smaller networks to form a single global system. The World Wide Web (WWW)
is one of the primary services that run on the Internet, enabling access to
websites and online content.
 Key components of the Internet include:
• Servers: Powerful computers that store and manage websites, applications,
and other data.
• Clients: Devices like smartphones, laptops, and desktops that access
servers.
• Routers and Switches: Devices that direct data traffic across networks.
• ISPs (Internet Service Providers): Companies that provide Internet
connectivity to users.
 X.25
 X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched
communications over WAN (Wide Area Network). It was
originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very
popular in 1980s. Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs
and credit card verification. It allows multiple logical channels
to use the same physical line. It also permits data exchange
between terminals with different communication speeds.
 Equipment used
 X.21 implementer
 DTE : Data Terminal Equipment
 DCTE : Data Circuit Terminating Equipment
•What it is:
X.25 is a protocol suite developed in the 1970s to facilitate data communication over public
networks, such as telephone lines. It is one of the earliest examples of packet-switched
networking, where data is broken into smaller units (packets) for transmission. Each packet is
checked for errors and retransmitted if necessary, ensuring reliable communication.

•Key Features:
•Error Control: Every packet is verified, and damaged packets are retransmitted.
•Connection-Oriented: A virtual connection is established before data transmission begins.
•Slow Speeds: Operates at a lower speed compared to modern networks like Ethernet.

•Applications:
•ATMs (Automated Teller Machines) for secure banking transactions.
•Early email systems and file transfer services.

•Real-life analogy:
Imagine sending parcels through a courier service where every parcel is opened, checked, and
resealed at each step to ensure nothing is lost or damaged. This thorough checking ensures
reliable delivery but can slow things down.
 Frame Relay

 Frame Relay is a packet-switching network protocol that is designed to work at the

data link layer of the network. It is used to connect Local Area Networks (LANs) and
transmit data across Wide Area Networks (WANs). It is a better alternative to a
point-to-point network for connecting multiple nodes that require separate
dedicated links to be established between each pair of nodes.
 It allows transmission of different size packets and dynamic bandwidth allocation.
Also, it provides a congestion control mechanism to reduce the network overheads
due to congestion. It does not have an error control and flow management
mechanism.
•What it is:
Frame Relay is a data transmission technology designed for connecting local area networks
(LANs) to wide area networks (WANs). It was widely used in the 1990s and early 2000s for
business communications. Frame Relay sends data in units called frames, which are smaller than
packets and optimized for fast delivery. Unlike X.25, it does not check for errors during
transmission, making it faster but less reliable.

•Key Features:
•Fast Data Transfer: Designed for speed over reliability.
•Cost-Efficient: Uses shared bandwidth, reducing costs for businesses.
•Connection-Oriented: Creates a virtual connection before transmitting data.

•Applications:
•Corporate networks for connecting branch offices.
•Telecommunication services like voice and video calls.

•Real-life analogy:
Imagine a carpool service where multiple passengers share the same car to save costs and travel
faster. Unlike a luxury taxi (X.25), it’s quicker but may not guarantee the same level of comfort or
reliability.
 ISDN
 The ISDN technology (Integrated Services Digital Network, or ISDN)
means complete digitization so that all communication established in
digital form, providing a wide range of services.
 Integrated Services Digital Network is a telephone system network. It is
a wide area network becoming widely available. Prior to the ISDN, the
phone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some
special services available for data. The key feature of the ISDN is that it
integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were
not available in the classic telephone system.
•What it is:
ISDN is a set of communication standards that allow the transmission of voice, video, and data over
traditional telephone lines. It digitizes the communication process, replacing analog systems for
faster and more efficient transmission. ISDN was widely used in the 1980s and 1990s for video
conferencing, Internet connections, and business communications.

•Key Features:
•Digital Transmission: Ensures clearer signals and faster speeds.
•Multiple Channels: Supports simultaneous transmission of different types of data (voice, video, and
text).

•Types:
•Basic Rate Interface (BRI): For small businesses and home users.
•Primary Rate Interface (PRI): For larger businesses with higher communication needs.

•Applications:
•Video conferencing.
•Early Internet services like dial-up.

•Real-life analogy:
ISDN is like upgrading from a single-lane road (analog phone line) to a multi-lane highway. Instead of
sending one type of vehicle (voice calls), you can send multiple vehicles (voice, video, data)
simultaneously.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) in
Computer Network

 Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a switching technique used by

telecommunication networks that uses asynchronous time-division
multiplexing to encode data into small, fixed-sized cells. This is different
from Ethernet or internet, which use variable packet sizes for data or
frames. ATM is the core protocol used over the synchronous optical
network (SONET) backbone of the integrated digital services network
(ISDN).
• ATM is a high-speed communication protocol used for transmitting voice,
video, and data in fixed-size units called cells. Each cell is 53 bytes
long, making it easy to manage and route. ATM is known for its
versatility, as it can handle different types of traffic simultaneously.
• Key Features:
• Fixed Cell Size: Ensures predictable performance.
• High Speeds: Supports data rates up to gigabits per second.
• Quality of Service (QoS): Ensures reliable performance for critical
applications like video streaming.
• Applications:
• Broadband networks for Internet and TV services.
• Video conferencing and multimedia applications.
• Real-life analogy:
Think of ATM as an assembly line where every item (cell) is the same
size. This uniformity ensures the process runs smoothly and efficiently,
no matter what type of product (data) is being handled.
 Ethernet

 Ethernet connecting computers together with cable so the computers can

share information. Ethernet can connect up to 1,024 personal computers
and workstations. Ethernet provides services on the Physical) and Data
Link Layer of OSI reference model. The Data Link Layer is further divided
into two sublayers that are Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC), these sublayers can be used to establish the transmission
paths and format data before transmitting on the same network segment.

Wireless Lan (Wi-fi)

Wireless LAN, is a network that allows devices to connect and
communicate
wirelessly. Unlike a traditional wired LAN, in which devices communicate
over
Ethernet cables, devices on a WLAN communicate via Wi-Fi. A WLAN
allows
users to move around the coverage area, often a home or small office,
while
maintaining a network connection
•Ethernet is the most widely used networking technology for connecting devices in a
Local Area Network (LAN). It uses cables to transmit data between computers,
printers, and other devices. Ethernet is known for being fast, reliable, and easy to set
up.

•Key Features:
•Speed: Modern Ethernet supports speeds from 100 Mbps to 100 Gbps.
•Wired Connection: Uses physical cables for stable connectivity.
•Broadcasting: Data is sent to all devices in the network, but only the intended
recipient processes it.

•Applications:
•Offices and schools for shared Internet access and resources.
•Data centers for high-speed connectivity between servers.

•Real-life analogy:
Imagine an office where all employees are connected by cables to a central printer
and file system. These cables allow them to share resources quickly and reliably.
 WiFi

•Wi-Fi, short for Wireless Fidelity, is a wireless networking technology that allows
devices to connect to the internet or communicate with one another without using
physical cables. Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE 802.11 standard and has become a
critical component of modern communication, enabling connectivity in homes,
offices, public spaces, and beyond.
•Wi-Fi provides high-speed internet and network connections using radio frequency
(RF) waves. It eliminates the need for physical cables, allowing multiple devices
such as smartphones, laptops, and smart appliances to connect wirelessly.
•Wireless LAN, commonly known as Wi-Fi, connects devices to a network without using
cables. It uses radio waves to transmit data, making it a convenient solution for laptops,
smartphones, and tablets. Wi-Fi is widely used in homes, cafes, airports, and public
places.
•Key Features:
•Wireless Connectivity: No need for physical cables.
•Mobility: Devices can connect from anywhere within the Wi-Fi range.
•Speed: Modern Wi-Fi standards support high speeds, rivaling Ethernet.
•Applications:
•Home and office networks.
•Public hotspots in cafes, airports, and hotels.
•Real-life analogy:
Wi-Fi is like a cordless phone. Instead of being tied to a specific spot with a wire, you
can move around freely while staying connected.