Sampling

What is sampling
• Research involves collecting investigating issues related to
large populations.

• Collecting data from a large population wouldn’t be possible

considering the time, cost and human resource constraints.

• Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of

elements from the population.

• We study the properties or characteristics of sample and try

to generalize them to the whole population.
Sampling terminology
• Target Population
• Population refers to the entire group of people,
events, or things of interest that the researcher
wishes to investigate.

• For Example, if the researcher is interested in

factors influencing the learning motivation of
university level students of Islamabad, then all the
students of all the universities of Islamabad will be
the target population.
Sampling terminology
• Element
• An element is a single member of the population.

• For example: if there are 300,000 students enrolled

in all the universities of Islamabad, then each one
of the 300,000 students is an element.
Sampling terminology
• Population/sampling Frame
• The population frame is a listing of all the elements
in the population from which the sample is drawn.

• For example: A list containing the names of all the

300,000 students enrolled in the universities of
Islamabad will be the population frame.
Sampling terminology
• Sample
• A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises
some members selected from it.

• For example: If 400 students are drawn from a

population of 300,000. The 400 students will
constitute the sample of the study.
Sampling terminology
• Subject
• A subject is a single member of the sample, just as
an element is a single member of the population.

• For example: If 400 students are drawn from a

population of 300,000. Each one of those 400
students will be a subject.
Sampling terminology
• Census
• Census is an investigation of all the individual
elements that make up the population—a total
enumeration rather than a sample.

• For example: ‫( مردم شماری‬a descriptive count of

Pakistan's population on Census Day, and of their
dwellings, conducted and supervised by the Bureau
of Statistics of the Ministry of Finance and
Statistics.)
Sampling terminology

Subject
Sampling terminology
• Statistic
• The characteristics of sample.
• Sample mean = X
• Sample Standard Deviation = S
• Sample Variance = S2

• Parameter
• The characteristics of population
• Population Mean = μ
• Population Standard Deviation = σ
• Population Variance = σ2

• Representativeness of Sample
• The sample characteristics should be close to population characteristics
Stages in sampling process
• Define the target population
• Select a population/sampling frame (if available)
• Determine sampling method (Probability or non-
probability.)
• Determine sample size
• Select actual samples
• Conduct field work.
 Probability Nonprobability
Sampling Sampling

A sampling technique in which A sampling technique in which

every member of the population units of the sample are selected
has a known, nonzero probability on the basis of personal
of selection. judgment or convenience; the
probability of any particular
member of the population being
chosen is unknown.
Simple Random Sampling
• In simple random sampling design, every element in the
population has a known and equal chance of being selected as a
subject.

• For example:
• Let us say there are 4,000 elements in the population and We
need a sample of 300.
• We need the population frame containing the names of all the
4000 elements. We put all those 4000 names in a box and
randomly draw one.
• The first name drawn will have a 1/4,000 chance of being drawn
• The next one a 1/3999 chance of being drawn, and so on.
• A computer program can generate random numbers for us.
Simple Random Sampling
• simple random sampling, has the least bias and
offers the most generalizability.

• However, this sampling process could become

cumbersome and expensive;

• in addition an entirely updated listing of the

population may not always be available.

• For these and other reasons, other probability

sampling designs are often chosen instead.
Systematic Sampling
• The systematic sampling design involves drawing every nth element in the
population starting with a randomly chosen element between 1 and n.

• If we want a sample of 35 households from a total population of 245

houses in a particular locality. First we would calculate the sampling
fraction:
• Sampling fraction = 245 / 35 = 7

• Then we could sample every seventh house starting from a random

number from 1 to 7.

• Let us say that the random number is 7, then houses numbered 7, 14, 21,
28, and so on, would be sampled until the 35 houses are selected.
Stratified Random
Sampling
• We divide the population into two or more relevant
strata (groups) based on some attributes.

• A random sample (simple or systematic) is then

drawn from each of the strata (groups).

• Stratification is used when there may be

identifiable subgroups of elements within the
population.
Stratified Random
Sampling
• For example: The president of a company is concerned
about commitment levels and absenteeism rates among
the employees.
• It makes sense to stratify the population of organizational
members according to their job levels.
• Upper level mangers
• Middle level managers
• Lower level mangers/employees

• The researcher may find that the middle level managers

are high commitment and have a low level of
absenteeism as compared to other groups.
Stratified Random
Sampling
• Stratified samples have homogeneity within the
group
• (all the group members are similar to each other)

• Heterogeneity among the groups

• (one group is different from the other).
Proportionate and Disproportionate
Stratified Random Sampling
• The subjects drawn from each stratum can be either
proportionate or disproportionate to the number of
elements in the stratum.

1. Proportionate Stratified
The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum
is in proportion to the population size of that stratum.

2. Disproportionate Stratified
The sample size for each stratum is allocated according
to analytical considerations.
Proportionate and Disproportionate
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster sampling
• An economically efficient sampling technique in which the primary
sampling unit is not the individual element in the population but a large
cluster of elements; clusters are selected randomly.

• For cluster sampling your sampling frame is the complete list of clusters
rather than a complete list of individual cases within the population.

• You then select a few clusters, normally using simple random sampling.

• Data are then collected from every case within the selected clusters.

• Cluster sampling is done when there is heterogeneity within the group

members (each group member is different from other) and homogeneity
among groups (one complete cluster/group is similar to the other).
Cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling Involves:
1. The division of the population into convenient
clusters,
2. Randomly choosing the required number of
clusters as sample subjects
3. Investigating all the elements of interest in each of
the randomly chosen clusters.
Multistage Cluster
sampling
• Cluster sampling can also be done in several stages and is
then known as multistage cluster sampling.
• For instance, if we were to do a survey regarding
prevalence of diabetes within clustered areas of Panjab.
• The cluster can be first made on the basis of cities.
1. Some cities (clusters) can be randomly chosen.
2. Then at the second stage Municipality areas within the chosen
clusters can be chosen randomly.
3. At the third stage specific neighborhoods and roads can be
chosen randomly Within these municipality areas.
Nonprobability Sampling
• The elements in the population do not have any probabilities
attached to their being chosen as sample subjects.

• This means that the findings from the study of the sample
cannot be confidently generalized to the population.

• Researchers may at times be less concerned about

generalizability than obtaining some information in a quick
and inexpensive way.

• Sometimes nonprobability sampling could be the only way to

obtain data
Convenience Sampling
• The collection of information from members of the
population who are conveniently available to provide
it.

• E.g., Pepsi Vs Coke Challenge: Administered on a

convenience sampling basis.

• Held at a shopping mall visited by many shoppers.

• Only those inclined to take the test might form the

sample for the study.
Purposive Sampling
• It might sometimes become necessary to obtain information
from specific target groups.

• The sampling here is confined to specific types of people who

can provide the desired information

• Either because they are the only ones who have it, or conform
to some criteria set by the researcher.

• Two major types of purposive sampling are:

• Judgment sampling
• Quota sampling
Judgment Sampling
• Judgment sampling involves the choice of subjects who are
most advantageously placed or in the best position to provide
the information required.

• For instance, if a researcher wants to find out what it takes

for women managers to make it to the top.

• Then only those women who have risen to the positions of

can give us the relevant information.

• Judgment sampling design is used when a limited number or

category of people have the information that is sought.
Quota Sampling
• Quota sampling, ensures that certain groups are
adequately represented in the study through the
assignment of a quota.

• Generally, the quota fixed for each subgroup is based on

the total numbers of each group in the population.

• Quota sampling can be considered as a form of

proportionate stratified sampling, in which a
predetermined proportion of people are sampled from
different groups, but on a convenience basis.
Snowball sampling
• Initial recruitment: Start with a small number of participants who fit
the research criteria.
• Expansion: These initial participants refer the researcher to other
potential respondents.
• Continuation: The chain of referrals continues, building a larger
sample over time.

• Used for Populations that are difficult to access directly due to privacy
concerns, social stigma, or legal reasons.
• Situations where trust is essential for accessing participants.

• Examples:
• Studying drug users
• Undocumented migrants
• Studying emerging entreprenures