AIR BREAKING SYSTEM USING

ENGINE EXHAUST GAS

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

HOMA PRESANNA P – 714021114018

PRAJIN VIMOSHAGAN KP -
714021114034
RAMKUMAR C - 714021114037
SIVAKARTHIKEYAN RD -
714021114048

in partial fulfillment of the requirement

for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SRI SHAKTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous)

COIMBATORE – 641062

DEC 202
4
 2

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report titled “AIR BREAKING SYSTEM USING
ENGINE EXHAUST GAS” is the bonafide work of HOMA PRESANNA P
(714021114018), PRAJIN VIMOSHAGAN KP (714021114034), RAMKUMAR
C (714021114037) and SIVAKARTHIKEYAN RD (71402111403048) who
carried out the project under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of
my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other project
reportor dissertation based on which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier
occasion on this or any other candidate.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr.R.KARTHIKEYAN, M.E., Dr. A. BHUVANESHWAR, M.E, Ph.D.,
SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Assistant Professor Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
SRI SHAKTHI INSTITUTE OF SRI SHAKTHI INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Coimbatore - 641062 Coimbatore – 641062

Submitted for the viva-voce examination held on ………………

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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DECLARATION

We jointly declare that the project report on “AIR BREAKING SYSTEM

USING ENGINE EXHAUST GAS” is the result of original work done by us and
to the best of our knowledge, similar work has not been submitted to “ANNA
UNIVERSITY CHENNAI” for the requirement of a Degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in (Mechanical Engineering). This project report is submitted on the
partial fulfillment of the requirement of the award of Degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in (Mechanical Engineering).

Signature

HOMA PRESANNA P

PRAJIN VIMOSHAGAN KP

RAMKUMAR C

SIVAKARTHIKEYAN RD

Place: Coimbatore

Date:
 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to Honourable Chairman

Thiru. THANGAVELU for providing immense facilities at our institution.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Principal Dr. N.K

SAKTHIVEL, M.Tech, Ph.D., for providing the necessary resources and facilities
for the completion of this project work report. Your continuous supportand
encouragement have been invaluable throughout this endeavor.

We proudly render our immense gratitude to the Head of the Department

Dr. BHUVANESHWAR, M.E., Ph.D., for his guidance and support in shaping the
direction of this project. Your insightful feedback and expertise have been
instrumental in refining our approach and methodology.

We are highly indebted to provide our heart full thanks to supervisor Mr.
M.R.KARTHIKEYAN, M.E., Assistant Professor for his valuable ideas,
encouragement, and supportive guidance throughout the project. Your constructive
criticism and attention to detail have greatly contributed to the quality of this report.

We are also thankful to all the staff members of our department and
technicians for their valuable assistance. Finally, we take this opportunity to
extend our deep appreciation to our family and friends, for that they meant to
us during the crucial times of the completion of our project into a successful
one and we conclude our thanks to god for providing better situations.

Homa Presanna P

Prajin Vimoshagan KP

Ramkumar C

Sivakarthikeyan RD
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT 6

1 INTRODUCTION 7

I TYPES 8

II CHARACTERISTICS 11

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 15

3 METHODOLOGY 20

I DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT 20

i ENGINE 20

ii CARBURETOR 20

iii WORKING 21

iv HARDWARE USED 22

4 ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS 58

5 CONCLUSION 59

6 REFERENCES 60
 6

ABSTRACT

The aim is to design and to develop an air brake system based on exhaust
gas is called "fabrication of air brake system using engine exhaust gas". The main
aim of this project is to reduce the workbasE of the engine drive to operate the air
compressor, because here the compressor is not operated by the engine drive. Here
we are placing a turbine in the path of exhaust from the engine. The turbine e is
connected to a dynamo by means of coupling, which is used to generate power.
Depending upon the airflow the turbine will start rotating, and then the dynamo will
also starts to rotate. A dynamo is a device which is used to convert the kinetic energy
into electrical energy. The generated power can be stored in the battery and then this
electric power has loaded to the D.C compressor. The air compressor compresses the
atmospheric air and it stored in the air tank and the air tank has pressure relief valve
to control the pressure in the tank. The air tank supplies the compressed pneumatic
power to the pneumatic actuator through solenoid valve to apply brake. The
pneumatic actuator is a double acting cylinder which converts hydraulic energy
into linear motion.

This Project is ensuring the quality and relevance of our work towards achieving
SDG9 objectives
 7

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

We waste so much energy. As much as 60 percent of energy is wasted as heat. Our

laptops, nuclear power plants, chemical factories and cars all contribute to this waste heat.
Researchers at Purdue University are working with General Motors to create
thermoelectric generators (TEGs) to turn waste heat directly into electrical energy for cars.
The idea is to use the heat from the car engine's exhaust to generate electricity. The
prototype which is a small metal chip will basically hook up to the exhaust system and tap
into heat coming from the gases. The technology used today can't hold up against the high
temperatures inside catalytic converters. But the material the researchers want to use is
called skutterudite, which is a mix of minerals. Then other rare metals are added to it to
make sure it's a poor conductor. That way, the current is generated when the material is
hot on one side and cold on the other. Ideally, it would reduce the amount of fuel used by
five percent. It does this as it generates electricity to help power the car's electrical sy stem
and charge its battery. The applications of the technology go beyond car exhaust. It could
generate electricity in homes and power plants from waste streams. Waste byproducts
could supply 19 percent of U.S. power, the heat sure gets lost easily. The promise is there,
but the technical hurdles remain

BRAKING SYSTEM

A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving
system It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its
motion, most often accomplished by means of frictionMost brakes commonly use friction
between two surfaces pressed together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object
into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example,
regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy which may be
stored for later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such
stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil Eddy current brakes use magnetic fiekis
to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake dise, fin, or rail, which is
converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into
different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.
 8

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheek, but may also take other
forms such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air).
Some vehicles une a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars
with both wheel brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and
drag flaps raised into the air during landing.Friction brakes on automobiles store
braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the
air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to
brake.When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed
against the master cylinder, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the
brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the
cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down

TYPES

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics.

One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump muy pass fluid through
an orifice to create friction:

Frictional

Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into "shoc" or
"pad" brakes, using on explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as
parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear.
Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad'shoe brakes and excludes
hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction, Friction
(pad/shoe) brakes are ofien rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating
wear surfice. Common configurations inchale shoes that cortrict to rub on the
outside of a rotating drum, such as a hand brake, a rotating drum with shoes that
expand to rub the inside ofa drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although
other drum configurations are possible, and pads that pinch a rotating dec,
commonly called a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are
 9

used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is
clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating
drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs
with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand
laterally.

A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake
shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum. The drum is
connected to the rotating roadwheel hub.
Drum brakes generally can be found on older car and truck models. However,
because of their kw production cost, drum brake setups are also installed on the
rear of some low-cost newer vehicles. Compared to modern disc brakes, drum
brakes wear out faster due to their tendency to overheat.
The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a road wheel. A
brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is
connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form
of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically,
hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides ofthe disc.
Friction causes the dise and attached wheel to slow or stop.
Ceramic brakes, also called "carbon ceramic", are high-end type of frictional
brakes with brake pads and rotors made from porcelain compound blends, that
feature better stopping capability and greater resistance to overheat. Due to their
high production cost, ceramic brakes aren't
 10

widely used as factory equipment, and their availability on the automotive

aftermarket is low compared to traditional metallic brakes. However, being performance-
oriented equipment, ceramic brakes are popular among racersPumpingPumping brakes are
often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an internal-
combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping
losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a valve override called a Jake
brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes can dump energy as heat, or can
be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.

ElectromagneticElectromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric

motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles
use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative
brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate
electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as
some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder"
brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a
brake are eddy current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are
magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called "electromagnetic
brakes" as well).
 11

Electromagnetic brakes slow an object through electromagnetic induction, which

creates resistance and in turn either heat or electricity. Friction brakes apply pressure on two
separate objects to slow the vehicle in a controlled manner.

CHARACTERISTICS

Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:.

 12

Peak force -The peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The
peak force is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can
cause a wheel skil.
Continuous power dissipation - Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the
temperature gets too high The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that can be
dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation.
Continuous power dissipation offen depends on e.g, the temperature and speed of ambient
cooling air.
Fade - As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fide. Some designs are
inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use
considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.
Smoothness -A brake that is grabby, pulses, has chatter, or otherwise exerts varying brake
force may lead to skids. For example, railroad wheels have little traction, and friction
brakes without an anti-skid mechanism often lead to skids, which increases maintenance
costs and leads to a thump thump" feeling for riders inside.
Power -Brakes are often described as "powerful" when a small human application force
leads to a braking force that is higher than typical for other brakes in the same class. This
notion of "powerful" does not relate to continuous power dissipation, and may be confusing
in that a brake may be "powerful" and brake strongly with a gentle brake application, yet
lave lower (worse) peak force than a less "powerful" brake.
Pedal feel -Brake pedal feel encompasses subjective perception of brake power output as a
function of pedal travel. Pedal travel is influenced by the fluid displacement of the brake
and other factors.
Drag -Brakes have varied amount of drag in the off-brake condition depending on design
of the system to accommodate total system compliance and deformation that exists under
braking with ability to retract friction material from the rubbing surface in the off-brake
condition
Durability -Friction brakes have wear surfaces that must be renewed periodically. Wear
surfaces include the brake shoes or pads, and also the brake disc or drum. There may be
tradeofis, for example a wear surface that generates high peak force may also wear quickly.
Weight -Brakes are often "added weight in that they serve no other function. Further,
brakes are often mounted on wheels, and unsprung weight can significantly hurt traction in
 13

some circumstances. "Weight" may mean the brake itself, or may include additional support
structure.
· Noise - Brakes usually create some minor noise when applied, but often create squeal or
grinding noises that are quite loud.

AIR BREAK

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for
vehicles in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the
brake pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly
those having multiple trailers which must be linked into the brake system, such
as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers in addition to their use in railroad trains. George
Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air
brake on March 5, 1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air
pressured brake invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake. In the early
20th century, after its advantages were proven in railway use, it was adopted by
manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles.

DESIGN AND FUNCTION

Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of
service brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage tank. For the parking
brake, there’s a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied'
position by spring pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake"
parking brakes. For the service brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping)
to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100-120 psi
or 690-830 kPa or 6.89-8.27 bar) to the brake chamber, causing the brake to be engaged.
Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though there is an increasing trend towards
the use of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the
atmosphere and forces it into high- pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa; 8.3 bar).
Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air
pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. A mechanical
"wig wag" that automatically drops down
 14

into the driver's field of vision when the pressure drops below a certain point is also
common.Setting of the parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air in the lines
between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus allowing the spring actuated
parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result in full spring brake
pressure immediately.
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system.
The supply system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as
well as to additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal
air assistance servo, etc.).
A Purdue University team, in collaboration with General Motors, is setting out to
develop a new type of thermoelectric generator that can convert heat from a car's exhaust
into electricity. The first prototype of the energy saving technology could reduce fuel
consumption by 5 to 10 percent. The idea is to place a device built from thermoelectric
materials (materials that can generate an electrical current from temperature differences) in
the exhaust system behind the catalytic converter, where heat from gas ses can reach
temperatures nearing 1,000 degrees Celsius. That heat could then be converted into
electricity by the thermoelectric materials. "The material is hot on the side facing the exhaust
gases and cool on the other side, and this difference must be maintained to continually
generate a current", said Xianfan Xu, a Purdue professor working on the project. One
obstacle that has prevented technology like this from succeeding before is that current
thermoelectric material cannot withstand the sweltering temperatures inside catalytic
converters. That's what the Purdue team aims to remedy. For instance, the first prototype can
harvest heat from gasses that are about 700 degrees Celsius. "The biggest challenge is
system level design how to optimize everything to get as much heat as possible from the
exhaust gas", Xu said.
"The engine exhaust has to lose as much heat as possible to the material". The
electricity generated from the exhaust could then help power a car's electrical systems,
reducing strain on the engine and ultimately improving fuel economy. Helping your auto to
puff-puff along more efficiently is only the start of what this new technology could achieve,
however. Thermoelectric technologies can also be used for other applications such as
harnessing waste heat to generate electricity in homes and power plants. They might even
lead to the development of a new type of solar cell or a solid -state refrigerator, said Xu
 15

Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
LITERATURE SURVEY
The various research works attempted in the area of energy conservation and
specifically in thearea of air compressor and pneumatic systems have been referred and
discussed here.

According to John (1995), the opportunities for cost savings in compressed air
supply system includes but not limited to waste heat recovery, compressed air leakage
reduction, use of outside air for compressor, compressor control, air pressure control,
compressor selection and usage of IC engine for compressor driving. The solution for
compressed air leaks is to make leak finding and correcting as a part of the normal
maintenance process and repeating leak survey at least once a year (John Holdsworth
1997). Over-pressurization can also result from short sighted selection of ancillary
equipments. Bill Howe and Bill Scales (1998) report that the opportunities for improved
compressed air efficiency where air is used internally, but uneconomically are less
understood. Supplying air at required pressure, appropriate use of air, automated controls
are some of the recommendations given by the authors.
 16

Cost effective efficiency opportunities in production and usage of compressed air are
often ignored by the industries due to various reasons and selection of correct compressor
control also plays a major role in the energy consumption by the air compressors (Robert
1999). Leaks, inappropriate usage of compressed air, poor selection of compressors and
ancillary equipments, pressure problem and poor attempts to solve these problems are
some other common causes of inefficiency in the compressor system.

According to David (1999), estimates and actual measurements of compressed air

systems show that 10 % to 35% air is lost due to leak or improper use. Proper
maintenance, sound design and appropriate usage of the compressed air can contribute
for energy savings.

Durmus Kaya et al (2002) attempted energy conservation with repairing air leaks,
installing high efficiency motors, reducing the average air inlet temperature by using
outside air and reducing compressor air pressure. The pay back periods for the
investments made with these measures were very less. Proper maintenance and
appropriate use of compressed air can contribute to cost effective and energy efficient
compressed air system, along with the control mode (U.S 2003). Different efficiencies
are considered for performance evaluation of compressors (Ueno et al 2003).

Maintenance, monitoring, blocking leakage, minimising air inlet temperature, minimising

allowable pressure dew point at air intake, controls, properly sized pipes, heat recovery,
usage of natural gas engine for driving air compressor, system improvement and
improvement in the motor are the options described by Christina et al (2003). Asfaw
(2005), lists leak and air supply at higher pressure than required are the major causes
besides over sized compressors, running compressors when not needed, wrong
application of compressed air etc.

Studies on energy conservation in compressors and pneumatic systems

Several attempts have been made already, to optimise compressor and its accessories as
well as pneumatic systems so as to reduce the energy consumption. Fujiwara and Osada
(1995) used computer simulation for analysing the performance of the screw
compressors. Computer based tools are also developed for identifying energy saving
 17

opportunities in industries, compressed air system is one of its application areas

(Gopalakrishnan et al 1997). Pascal et al (2001) propose a global model for the
thermodynamic analysis of reciprocating air compressor based on five main and four
secondary dimensionless parameters used to predict the performance of a reciprocating
air compressor under various operating conditions.
Exergy analysis as a tool was used for the design, optimization, and performance
evaluation of energy systems (Recep et al 2002). Kagawa et al also used exergy approach
for the energy assessment of pneumatic cylinder actuation system and reported that the
approach is effective on clarifying the energy distribution in pneumatic cylinders.
Attempts had been made to 23 optimise screw compressors during the design stage itself
(Stosic et al 2003). Jiang et al (2003) used an integrated CAD/CAM method for design
and manufacturing of scroll compressors

Keeping the above in consideration, the scope of this project has the following

OBJECTIVES:
i) To suggest a suitable method to identify the optimum operating pressure for air
compressors so that it can be employed by the industries readily to conserve
energy consumed by air compressors. It is done considering different working
conditions, different combinations and variations in the parameters.
ii) To suitably modify the existing compressor controller so that it dynamically
adjusts the pressure based on the pattern of the consumption of air.
iii) To study the possibility of optimising pressure bandwidth using fuzzy based
method at various levels of consumption.
iv) To use a target costing and reengineering based approach for energy
conservation in compressors.

This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of manual effort

by mechanical power in all degrees of automation. The operation remains an essential part
of the system although with changing demands on physical input as the degree of
mechanization isincreased.
 18

Degrees of automation are of two types, viz.

Full automation.
Semi automation.
In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is required
whereas in full automation human participation is very negligible.
EGR is effective to reduce nitrogen oxides (NOX) from Diesel engines because it lowers
the flame temperature and the oxygen concentration of the working fluid in the combustion
chamber. However, as NOx reduces, particulate matter (PM) increases, resulting from the
lowered oxygen concentration. When EGR further increases, the engine operation reaches
zones with higher instabilities, increased carbonaceous emissions and even power losses. In
this research, the paths and limits to reduce NOx emissions from Diesel engines are briefly
reviewed, and the inevitable uses of EGR are highlighted. The impact of EGR on Diesel
operations is analyzed and a variety of ways to implement EGR are outlined. Thereafter,
new concepts regarding EGR stream treatment and EGR hydrogen reforming are proposed.

Partial combustion of biomass in the gasifier generates producer gas that can be used for
heating purposes and as supplementary or sole fuel in internal combustion engines. In this
study, the potential of coir -pith and wood chips as the feedstock for gasifier is analyzed. The
performance of the gasifier- engine system is analyzed by running the engine for various
producer gas -air flow ratios and at different load conditions. The system is experimentally
optimized with respect to maximum diesel savings and lower emissions in the dual fuel
mode operation while using coir-pith and wood chips separately. The performance and
emission characteristics of the dual fuel engine are compared with that of diesel engine at
different load conditions. Specific energy consumption in the dual fuel mode of operation is
found to be in the higher side at all load conditions. The brake thermal efficiency of the
engine while using wood chips in the dual mode operation is higher than that of coir -pith.
The CO emission is higher in the case of dual fuel mode of operation as compared to that of
diesel mode. In the dual fuel mode of operation, the higher diesel savings is achieved while
using wood chips as compared to that of
 19

coir - pith. The comparison of the performance and emission characteristics of the
dual fuel engine with diesel engine is also described
This article gives an overview of power generation with gas turbine and combined
heat and power (CHP) systems. It also presents the European Union strategy for developing
gas turbines and CHP systems. Ways to improve the performance of the several types of
gas turbine cycle will be a major objective in the coming years. The targets are combined
cycle efficiencies above 60% industrial gas turbine system efficiencies of at least 50% and
small gas turbines efficiencies above 35% and designs for the use of fuels with less than
25% heating value of that of natural gas. The main CHP targets are the reduction of the
overall costs and the development of above 40 kW biomass - fired systems.

Scope of the project:

Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics,

etc ., of these sources, pneumatics forms an attractive medium for low cost automation. The
main advantages of all pneumatic systems are economy and simplicity. Automation plays
an important role in mass production. For mass production of the product, the machining
operations decide the sequence of machining. The machines designed for producing a
particular product are called transfer machines. The components must be moved
automatically from the bins to various machines sequentially and the final component can
be placed separately for packaging. Materials can also be repeatedly transferred from the
moving conveyors to the work place and vice versa. Nowadays almost all the
manufacturing process is being atomized in order to deliver the products at a faster rate.
The manufacturing operation is being atomized for the following reasons.
To achieve mass production
To increase the efficiency of the plant
To reduce the work load
To reduce the production cost
To reduce the production time
To reduce the material handling
To reduce the fatigue of workers
To achieve good product quality
Less Maintenance
 20
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
METHODOLOGY

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS

Engine
An engine is a machine designed to convert chemical energy into useful mechanical
motion. Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and external combustion
engines(such as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat, which then creates motion. The
internal combustion engine is classified into two types and they are diesel engine and petrol
engine. Originally, an engine was a mechanical device that converted force into motion.
Military devices such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams are referred to as siege
engines. The term "gin" as in cotton gin is recognized as a short form of the Old French
word engine, in turn from the ingenious, related to ingenious. Most devices in the industrial
revolution were called engines, and this is where the steam engine gained its name. The
term motor was originally used to distinguish the new internal combustion engine - powered
vehicles from earlier vehicles powered by steam engines, such as the steam roller and motor
roller, but may be used to refer to any engine.

Carburetor
The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle, the faster air moves, the lower its
Static pressure, and the higher Its dynamic pressure. The throttle (accelerator)
linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it actuates carburetor
mechanisms which meter the flow of air being pulled into the engine. The speed of this
flow, and therefore its pressure, determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream.
When carburetors are used in aircraft with piston engines, special designs and features
are needed to prevent fuel starvation during inverted flight. Later engines used an early form
of fuel injection known as a pressure carburetor. Most production carbureted (as
Opposed to fuel injected) engines have a single carburetor and a matching intake manifold
that divides and transports the air fuel mixture to the intake valves, though some engines
(like motorcycle engines) use multiple carburetors on split heads. Multiple carburetor
engines were also common enhancements for modifying engines in the USA from the 1950s
to mid-1960s, as well as during
 21

the following decade of high performance muscle cars fueling different chambers
of the engine’s

WORKING

A two stroke engine powered by petrol is used to produce exhaust gas. Here we are
placing a turbine in the path of exhaust from the silencer. The turbine is connected to a
dynamo, which is used to generate power. Depending upon the airflow the turbine will start
rotating thus rotating the dynamo. A dynamo is a device which is used to convert the
kinetic energy into electrical energy. The generated electric power is stored in a battery
after rectification. Thus the stored electrical power is use to run the DC compressor the
compressor compresses the atmospheric air and it is stored in an air tank. When the brake is
applied the 5/2 solenoid valve is activated and it allows the air to actuates the pneumatic
cylinder thus the brake is applied.
 22

Hardware used:

Pneumatic cylinder

Pneumatic solenoid valve

Bearing

Adaptor

Freewheels

Battery 12V

Turbine

Dynamo

PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Pneumatic cylinder(s) (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which use
the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion.
Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to
be moved.[1] :85 Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter,
cleaner, and do not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.
Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and
contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics
are used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets

TYPES
 23

Single-acting cylinders

Single-acting cylinders (SAC) use the pressure imparted by compressed air to create a
driving force in one direction (usually out), and a spring to return to the "home" tion. More
often than not, this type of cylinder has limited extension due to the space the compressed
spring takes up. Another downside to SACs is that part of the force produced by the cylinder
is lost as it tries to push against the spring

Double-acting cylinders

Double-acting cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to move in both extend and retract
strokes. They have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for instroke. Stroke
length for this design is not limited, however, the piston rod is more vulnerable to buckling
and bending. Additional calculations should be performed as well.

Multi-stage, telescoping cylinder

Telescoping cylinders, also known as telescopic cylinders can be either single or double-
acting. The telescoping cylinder incorporates a piston rod nested within a series of hollow
stages of increasing diameter. Upon actuation, the piston rod and each succeeding stage
"telescopes" out as a segmented piston. The main benefit of this design is the allowance for
a notably longer stroke than would be achieved with a single-stage cylinder of the same
collapsed (retracted) length. One cited drawback to telescoping cylinders is the increased
potential for piston flexion due to the segmented piston design. Consequently, telescoping
cylinders are primarily utilized in applications where the piston bears minimal side loading.

Other types

Although SACs and DACs are the most common types of pneumatic cylinder, the following
types are not particularly rare

Through rod air cylinders: piston rod extends through both sides of the cylinder, allowing
for equal forces and speeds on either side.

Cushion end air cylinders: cylinders with regulated air exhaust to avoid impacts between the
 24

Rotary air cylinders: actuators that use air to impart a rotary motion.
Rodless air cylinders: These have no piston rod. They are actuators that use a mechanical
or magnetic coupling to impart force, typically to a table or other body that moves along the
length of the cylinder body, but does not extend beyond it.
.Tandem air cylinder: two cylinders assembled in series
Impact air cylinder: high velocity cylinders with specially designed end covers that
withstand the impact of extending or retracting piston rods.

COMPONENTS USED
> 2 STROKE ENGINE
> SWITCHES FOR IGNITION ON/OFF AND SELF START
> PNEUMATIC CYLINDER
> 12 DC COMPRESSOR
> SOLENOID VALVE
> AIR PIPES
> 12 V BATTERY
> DC GENERATOR OR DYNAMO
 25

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Air from exhaust gas is forced to a turbine which acts as a dynamo, the turbine fan is light
material which will rotate for even minimum force of air .
The turbine thus produces a milli volts of charge which is shown using a led bulb. A diode
is connected to the circuit of the dynamo which is connected to a battery since to have a
one way flow of current . thus charge stored in a battery is used to run a 12v dc compressor
which actuates flow of air through solenoid valve . the solenoid valve acts as switch for
braking mechanism i,e air brake .thus braking facility is obtained by using pneumatic
cylinder to a drum brake. Air brakes are very efficient since you only actuate the solenoid
valve for braking you do not force your foot for braking continuously.

SPECIFICATIONS
> PNEUMATIC CYLINDER - 10 Kpa
> DC COMPRESSOR - 12 V
 26

> DYNAMO - 12V

> ENGINE - 80 CC SCOOTY

> BATTERY - 12V

ADVANTAGES

Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter vehicles
such as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer pressure from
the brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes have several advantages for
large multitrailer vehicles

· The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its operating fluid,
as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake failures.

· Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines eliminating the risk
of air getting into hydraulic fluid since there is no hydraulic fluid. Air brake circuits on
trailers can be easily attached and removed by operators with appropriate training.

Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential energy. So it
can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores
sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.

· Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system can be
designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking

1. It reduces the battery power

2. It increases the engine efficiency

3. It occupies less floor space

4. It reduces the air pollution

 27

MILD STEEL ANGLES

We have used 1inch width and 3mm thickness mild steel angles in this project.
Mild or low-carbon steel
Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily
tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common
form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are
acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05-0.25% carbon !!
making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is
cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing. In
applications where large cross-sections are used to minimize deflection, failure by yield is
not a risk so low-carbon steels are the best choice, for example as structural steel. The
density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3 (7850 kg/m3 or 0.284 lb/in3)[4] and the
Young’s modulus is 200 GPa (29,000 ksi). [5]
Low-carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two yield points.
The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops
dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point
between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develop Lüder bands Low-carbon
steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier
to handle

High-tensile steel

High-tensile steels are low-carbon, or steels at the lower end of the medium-carbon range,
which have additional alloying ingredients in order to increase their strength, wear
properties or specifically tensile strength. These allo ying ingredients
include chromium, molybdenum, silicon, manganese, nickel and vanadium.
Impurities such as phosphorus or sulphur have their maximum allowable content restricted.
.
41 xx steel
.
4140 steel
.
4145 steel
 28

· 4340 steel

· 300M steel

.EN25 steel 21/2% nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel

.EN26 steel

Higher-carbon steels

Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in

the range of 0.30-1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have

a significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in

particular make the steel red-short, that is, brittle and crumbly at working temperatures.

Low-alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts

around 1,426-1,538 ℃ (2,599-2,800 ºF). 18] Manganese is often added to improve

the hardenability of low-carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low-alloy

steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65%

manganese by weight.

Classification

See also: SAE steel grades

Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon content:[11

Low-carbon steel

0.05 to 0.30% carbon content ..

Medium-carbon steel

Approximately 0.3-0.8% carbon content. [1] Balances ductility and strength and has good

wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components. [9][10]
 29

High-carbon steel
Approximately 0.8-2.0% carbon content.[1] Very strong, used for springs, edged
tools, and high-strength wires.
Ultra-high-carbon steel Approximately 3.25-4.0% carbon content.111 Steels that
can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose)
knives, axles or punches. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using
powder metallurgy.
Heat treatment

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain
types of heat treatments.
Main article: Heat treatment
The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of
steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the
electrical and thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening
techniques for steel, Young's modulus (elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel
trade ductility for increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon
in the austenite phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process
annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can
exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a moderate to low rate allowing
carbon to diffuse out of the austenite forming iron-carbide (cementite) to precipitate
 30

leaving ferrite, or at a high rate, trapping the carbon within the iron thus forming
martensite. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the eutectoid temperature (about
727℃) affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite and forms cementite.
Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will leave iron carbide finely dispersed and produce a
fine grained pearlite and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a
hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.77 wt% C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure of iron
carbide layers with a-ferrite (nearly pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid steel (more
than 0.77 wt% C) then the structure is full pearlite with small grains (larger than the
pearlite lamella) of cementite formed on the grain boundaries. A eutectoid steel (0.77%
carbon) will have a pearlite structure throughout the grains with no cementite at the
boundaries. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the lever rule. The
following is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:

· Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 ℃

for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed
drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a structure of
rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on
which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and
allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel. The image to the
right shows where spheroidizing usually occurs.

.Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 40 ℃ above Ac3? Or Acm? For 1
hour; This ensures all the ferrite transforms into austenite (although cementite might still
exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled
slowly, in the realm of 20 ℃ (36 ºF) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the
furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure,
which means the "bands" of pearlite are thick. Fully annealed steel is soft and ductile, with
no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized
steel is softer and more ductile.

· Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with
less than 0.3% C. The steel is usually heated to 550-650 ℃ for 1 hour, but .
 31

sometimes temperatures as high as 700 ℃. The image rightward shows the area where
process annealing occurs.

.Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper
critical temperature. This temperature is maintained for a time and then reduced to below the
lower critical temperature and is again maintained. It is then cooled to room temperature.
This method eliminates any temperature gradient.

· Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 ℃ above Ac3 or Acm for 1 hour;
this ensures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air- cooled, which
is a cooling rate of approximately 38 ℃ (100 ºF) per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic
structure, and a more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than
annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and hardness.[15]

.Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures and
then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The critical
temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon
content increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that possesses a
super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline
structure, properly termed body- centered tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus
quenched steel is extremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These
internal stresses may cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately
three to four (with more carbon) fold harder than normalized steel.

Martempering (Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence

the term "marquenching". It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial
quench, typically in a molten salt bath, at a temperature just above the "martensite start
temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some
bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not have time to transform into
anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control the ductility and hardness of a
material. With longer marquenching, the ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength;
the steel is held in this solution until the inner and outer temperatures of the part equalize.
Then the steel is
 32

sometimes temperatures as high as 700 ℃. The image rightward shows the

area where process annealing occurs. Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which
hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical temperature. This temperature is
maintained for a time and then reduced to below the lower critical temperature and is
again maintained. It is then cooled to room temperature. This method eliminates any
temperature gradient.

· Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 ℃ above Ac3 or

Acm for 1 hour; this ensures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is
then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 ℃ (100 ºF) per minute.
This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform structure. Normalized
steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and
hardness.[15]

.Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing

temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical
temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a
general rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic
structure; a form of steel that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a
deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-
centered tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is
extremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These internal
stresses may cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately three
to four (with more carbon) fold harder than normalized steel. Martempering
(Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence the term
"marquenching". It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial
quench, typically in a molten salt bath, at a temperature just above the "martensite
start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are
relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not
have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control
the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility
increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the
inner and outer temperatures of the part equalize. Then the steel is
 33

cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this
process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also increases the impact resistance.
[17]

Tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered, because the final
properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of the tempering.
Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below the eutecto id
temperature then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts of
spheroidite to form, which restores ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and
times are carefully chosen for each composition. [18]

Austempe ring: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the quench
is interrupted and the steel is held in the molten salt bath at temperatures between 205 ℃
and 540℃, and then cooled at a moderate rate. The resulting steel, called bainite, produces
an acicular microstructure in the steel that has great strength (but less than martensite),
greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion than martensite steel. The
disadvantage of austempering is it can be used only on a few steels, and it requires a special
salt bath. [19]

Case hardening

Main article: Case hardening

Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear
resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not
very hardenable meaning they can not be hardened throughout thick sections. Alloy steels
have a better hardenability, so they can through-hardened and do not require case
hardening. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good
wear characteristics but leaves the core tough.

WELDING

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or

thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining
techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to
melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool
 34

of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than
the base material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to
produce a weld.

Welding also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted metals from
being contaminated or oxidized.

Although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such as friction
welding in which metal does not melt.

Some of the best known welding methods include:

· Oxy-fuel welding - also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy welding, uses fuel gases
and oxygen to weld and cut metals.

· Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) - also known as "stick welding" or "electric
welding", uses an electrode that has flux around it to protect the weld puddle. The
electrode holder holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle
from atmospheric contamination.

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) - also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a non-
consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such as argon or helium.

· Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) - commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a wire
feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based shielding gas
or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from
atmospheric contamination.

. Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) - almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a
special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas,
depending on the filler.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) - uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a
blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from
atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.

. Electroslag welding (ESW) - a highly productive, single pass welding process for thicker
materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical
position.
 35

· Electric resistance welding (ERW) - a welding process that produces coalescence of

laying surfaces where heat to form the weld is generated by the electrical resistance of the
material. In general, an efficient method, but limited to relatively thin material.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric
arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process,
welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, under
water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are required
to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and
exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which
blacksmiths had used for millennia to join iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc
weldingand oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century,
and electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly
during the early 20th century as the world wars drove the demand for reliable and
inexpensive joinin methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were
developed, including manual methods like SMAW, now one of the most popular welding
methods, as well as semi- automatic and automatic processes such as GMAW, SAW, FCAW
and ESW. Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron
beam welding, magnetic pulse welding (MPW), and friction stir welding in the latter half of
the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in
industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain
greater understanding of weld quality.

PROCESSES
Arc
 36

Man welding a metal structure in a newly constructed house in Bengaluru, India These
processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc between an
electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use either
direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC), and consumable or non-consumable
electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert
gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

Power supplies To supply the electrical power necessary for arc welding processes, a
variety of different power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies
are constant current power supplies and constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding,
the length of the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related
to the current. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding
processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they
maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because
in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result,
the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the
voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated
welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged
arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the
distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in
current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly
increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt,returning it
to its original separation distance. The type of current used plays an important role in arc
welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal
arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively
or negatively. In welding, the positively
 37

charged anode will have a greater heat concentration, and as a result, changing the
polarity of the electrode affects weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged,
the base metal will be hotter, increasing weld penetration and welding speed.
Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds.
Nonconsumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either
type of direct current, as well as alternating current. However, with direct current,
because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a
positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged
electrode makes deeper welds. [27] Alternating current rapidly moves between these
two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the
arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention
of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine
wave, making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the
problem-1 Processes
One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW);1 it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding.
Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable
electrode rod, which is made of filler material (typically steel) and is covered with a
flux that protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination by producing
carbon dioxide (CO2) gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as
filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. Shielded metal arc welding
The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment,
making it well suited to shop jobs and field work An operator can become reasonably
proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve mastery with experience.
Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently
replaced and because slag, the residue fromthe flux, must be chipped away after
welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials,
though special electrodes have made possible the welding of cast
iron, nickel, aluminum, copper, and other metals.
 38

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is a semi-
automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert
or semi- inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. Since the electrode is
continuous, welding speeds are greater for GMAW than for SMAW.

A related process, flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire
consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more
expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits
even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a manual
welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungstenelectrode, an inert or semi-inert gas
mixture, and a separate filler material. [33] Especially useful for welding thin materials, this
method is
 39

characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill
and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. GTAW can be used on nearly all
weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often
used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval
applications. A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses
plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making
transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized
process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material
thicknesses than can the GTAW process and it is much faster. It can be applied to all of the
same materials as GTAW except magnesium, and automated welding of stainless steel is one
important application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient
steel cutting process.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is
struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the
atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by
itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high.
Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux
hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry,
especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels. Other arc
welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, electroslag welding, electrogas
welding, and stud arc welding.

Gas welding
Main article: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting
The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, [13] also known as oxyacetylene
welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it
has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes
and tubes, as well as repair work.
The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of
acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100 ℃. The flame,
since
 40

it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can lead to
greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels.
A similar process, generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.
Resistance
Main article: Resistance welding
Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance
caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are
formed at the weld area as high current (1000-100,000 A) is passed through the metal. [37]
In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their
applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be high. [37]

Spot welder
Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets
of up to 3 mm thick Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets
together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include
efficient energy use, limited workpiece de formation, high production rates, easy
automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than with
other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used
extensively in the automotive industry- ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds
made by industrial robots. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be used to spot
weld stainless steel.
Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to
join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along
and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long continuous welds. In the past,
this
 41
process was used in the manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more
limited. Other resistance welding methods include butt welding, flash welding,
projection welding, and upset welding.
Energy beam
Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding and electron beam welding,
are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high production
applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source
of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron
beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high
energy density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the
weld area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them
highly productive. The primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs
(though these are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in
this area include laser-hybrid welding, which uses principles from both laser beam
welding and arc welding for even better weld properties, laser cladding, and x-ray
welding
Solid-state
Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods do not
involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, ultrasonic
welding, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by
vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure.[411 The equipment and
methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric
current, vibration provides energy input. Welding metals with this process does not
involve melting the materials; instead, the weld is formed by introducing mechanical
vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding plastics, the materials should
have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically.
Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of
aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.
Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by
pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact
plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is
generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, such as the
welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls or compound plates. Other solid-state
welding processes include friction
 42

welding (including friction stir welding), magnetic pulse welding co-extrusion welding,
cold welding, diffusion bonding, exothermic welding, high frequency welding, hot
pressure welding, induction welding, and roll welding

PNEUMATIC PIPES
Pneumatic tubes (or capsule pipelines; also known as pneumatic tube trans port or PTT) are
systems that propel cylindrical containers through networks of tubes by compressed air or
by partial vacuum. They are used for transporting solid objects, as opposed to conventional
pipelines, which transport fluids. Pneumatic tube networks gained acceptance in the late
19th and early 20th centuries for offices that needed to transport small, urgent packages
(such as mail, paperwork, or money) over relatively short distances (within a building, or at
most, within a city). Some installations grew to great complexity, but were mostly
superseded. In some settings, such as hospitals, they remain widespread and have been
further extended and developed in the 21st century

We have used 8mm pneumatic pipes currently for the passage of air into the cylinder in
order to actuate the movement.
 43

PNEUMATIC CONNECTORS
A hose coupling is a connector on the end of a hose to connect (or couple) it with another
hose or with a tap or a hose appliance, such as an irrigation sprinkler. It is usually made of
steel, brass, stainless steel, aluminium or plastic

AIR COMPRESSOR
An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or
gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e ., compressed air).
By one of several methods, an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank,
increasing the pressure. When tank pressure reaches its engineered upper limit the air
compressor shuts off. The compressed air, then, is held in the tank until called into use. [1]
The energy contained in the compressed air can be used for a variety of applications,
utilizing the kinetic energy of the air as it is released and the tank depressurizes. When tank
pressure reaches its lower limit, the air compressor turns on again and re-pressurizes the
tank.
 44

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS

Compressors can be classified according to the pressure delivered:

1. Low-pressure air compressors (LPACs), which have a discharge pressure of 150 psi or
less

2. Medium-pressure compressors which have a discharge pressure of 151 psi to 1,000 psi

3. High-pressure air compressors (HPACs), which have a discharge pressure above 1,000
Psi

They can also be classified according to the design and principle of operation:

1. Single-Stage Reciprocating Compressor

2. Two-Stage Reciprocating Compressor
3. Compound Compressor
4. Rotary-screw compressor
5. Rotary Vane Compressor
6. Scroll Compressor
7. Turbo compressor
8. Axial Compressor

MATERIAL

Upon job specification, the material may be chosen. Material range from nickel-plated brass
to aluminum, and even steel and stainless steel. Depending on the level of loads, humidity,
temperature, and stroke lengths specified, the appropriate material may be selected.
Instroke and outstroke Although the diameter of the piston and the force exerted by a
cylinder are related, they are not directly proportional to one another. Additionally, the
typical mathematical relationship between the two assumes that the air supply does not
become saturated. Due to the effective cross sectional area reduced by the area of the piston
rod, the instroke force is less than
 45

the outstroke force when both are powered pneumatically and by same supply of
compressed gas.
The relationship between the force, radius, and pressure can derived from simple distributed
load equation:

AIR RESERVOIR

Air reservoir is used for storage of air under pressure. It is made of mild steel. The pressure
inside the cylinder is 3 to 5 N/mm 2 . It supplies air to the pneumatic actuators through
control valve.

WORKING-

When link turns through some angle, angle sensor detected the motion. Sensor sends this
data to controller and solenoid valve activate. Compressed air in reservoir passes through
valve and enters in pneumatic actuator. According to its position cylinder move the links.
One link turns its full range angle the another solenoid valve open and pneumatic actuator
moves in reverse direction.

The compressor that we are using in the project has a capacity to withstand 300psi of
pressure.
 46

An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or
gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e ., compressed air).
By one of several methods, an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank,
increasing the pressure. When tank pressure reaches its engineered upper limit the air
compressor shuts off. The compressed air, then, is held in the tank until called into use. [1]
The energy contained in the compressed air can be used for a variety of applications,
utilizing the kinetic energy of the air as it is released and the tank depressurizes. When tank
pressure reaches its lower limit, the air compressor turns on again and re-pressurizes the
tank. An air compressor must be differentiated from an air pump which merely pumps air
from one context (often the surrounding environment) into another (such as an inflatable
mattress, an aquarium, etc.). Air pumps do not contain an air tank for storing pressurized air
and are generally much slower, quieter, and less expensive to own and operate than an air
compressor.

CLASSIFICATIONS

Compressors can be classified according to the pressure delivered:

1. Low-pressure air compressors (LPACs), which have a discharge pressure of 150 psi or
less

2. Medium-pressure compressors which have a discharge pressure of 151 psi to 1,000 psi

3. High-pressure air compressors (HPACs), which have a discharge pressure above 1,000
Psi

They can also be classified according to the design and principle of operation:

1. Single-Stage Reciprocating Compressor

2. Two-Stage Reciprocating Compressor
3. Compound Compressor
4. Rotary-screw compressor
5. Rotary Vane Compressor
6. Scroll Compressor
7. Turbo compressor
8. Axial Compressor
 47

DISPLACEMENT TYPES
There are numerous methods of air compression, divided into either positive-displacement
or roto-dynamic types.

Positive displacement

Positive-displacement compressors work by forcing air into a chamber whose volume is

decreased to compress the air. Once the maximum pressure is reached, a port or valve opens
and air is discharged into the outlet system from the compression chamber. 141 Common
types of positive displacement compressors are

· Piston-type: air compressors use this principle by pumping air into an air chamber through
the use of the constant motion of pistons. They use one-way valves to guide air into and out
of a chamber whose base consists of a moving piston. When the piston is on its down stroke,
it draws air into the chamber. When it is on

Technical Illustration of a two-stage air compressor

its up stroke, the charge of air is forced out and into a storage tank. Piston compressors
generally fall into two basic categories, single-stage and two-stage. Single stage
compressors usually fall into the fractional through 5 horsepower range. Two-stage
compressors normally fall

Technical Illustration of a portable single-stage air compressor

 48

into the 5 through 30 horsepower range. Two-stage compressors provide greater efficiency
than their single-stage counterparts. For this reason, these compressors are the most common
units within the small business community. The capacities for both single-stage and two-
stage compressors is generally provided in horsepower (HP), Standard Cubic feet per
Minute (SCFM)* and Pounds per Square Inch (PSI). * To a lesser extent, some compressors
are rated in Actual Cubic Feet per Minute (ACFM). Still others are rated in Cubic Feet per
Minute(CFM). Using CFM to rate a compressor is incorrect because it represents a flow rate
that is independent of a pressure reference. i.e. 20 CFM at 60 PSI.

.Rotary screw compressors: use positive-displacement compression by matching two helical

screws that, when turned, guide air into a chamber, whose volume is decreased as the screws
turn

· Vane compressors: use a slotted rotor with varied blade placement to guide air into a
chamber and compress the volume. This type of compressor delivers a fixed volume of air at
high pressures.

Dynamic displacement

Dynamic displacement air compressors include centrifugal compressors and axial

compressors. In these types, a rotating component imparts its kinetic energy to the air which
is eventually converted into pressure energy. These use centrifugal force generated by a
spinning impeller to accelerate and then decelerate captured air, which pressurizes it.

APPLICATIONS

Air compressors have many uses, including: supplying high-pressure clean air to fill gas
cylinders, supplying moderate-pressure clean air to a submerged surface supplied diver,
supplying moderate-pressure clean air for driving some office and school building
pneumatic HVAC control system valves, supplying a large amount of moderate- pressure air
to power pneumatic tools, such as jackhammers, filling high pressure air tanks (HPA), for
filling tires, and to produce large volumes of moderate-pressure air for large-scale industrial
processes (such as oxidation for petroleum coking or cement plant bag house purge
systems).
 49

Most air compressors either are reciprocating piston type, rotary vane or rotary screw.
Centrifugal compressors are common in very large applications. There are two main types
of air-compressor pumps: oil-lubed and oil-less. The oil-less system has more technical
development, but is more expensive, louder and lasts for less time than oil-lubed pumps.
The oil- less system also delivers air of better quality. The most common types of air
compressors are: electric or gas/diesel powered compressors. The power of a compressor is
measured in HP (horsepower) and CFM (cubic feet per minute of intake air). The gallon size
of the tank specifies the volume of compressed air (in reserve) available. Gas/diesel powered
compressors are widely used in remote areas with problematic access to electricity. They are
noisy and require ventilation for exhaust gases. Electric powered compressors are widely
used in production, workshops and garages with permanent access to electricity. Common
workshop/garage compressors are 110-120 Volt or 230-240 Volt. Compressor tank shapes
are: "pancake", "twin tank", "horizontal", and "vertical". Depending on a size and purpose
compressors can be stationary or portable.

BATTERY

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, secondary cell, or accumulator is a type of electrical

battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed
to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. It
is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as
it accumulates and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable
batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to
megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different
combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead-acid, nickel
cadmium (NiCd), nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), and lithium-ion
polymer(Li-ion polymer). Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than
disposable batteries, but have a much lo wer total cost of ownership and environmental
impact, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing.
Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable
types, and can be used interchangeably with them.
 50

APPLICATIONS

Devices which use rechargeable batteries include automobile starters, portable consumer
devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric bicycles, and
electric forklifts), tools, uninterruptible power supplies, and battery storage power stations.
Emerging applications in hybrid internal combustion-battery and electric vehicles drive the
technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.

Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before
first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months,
and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.

Battery storage power stations use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling (storing electric
energy at times of low demand for use during peak periods) and for renewable energy uses
(such as storing power generated from photo voltaic arrays during the day to be used at
night). Load- leveling reduces the maximum power which a plant must be able to generate,
reducing capital cost and the need for peaking power plants.

The US National Electrical Manufacturers Association estimated in 2006 that US demand

for rechargeable batteries was growing twice as fast as demand for disposables.
 51

Small rechargeable batteries can power portable electronic devices, power tools, appliances,
and SO on. Heavy-duty batteries power electric vehicles, ranging from scooters to
locomotives and ships. They are used in distributed electricity generation and in stand-alone
power systems.

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the
negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current
flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow
between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active
participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead-acidcells. The energy used to charge
rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains electricity,
although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet. The voltage of the
source must be higher than that of the battery to force current to flow into it,
but not too much higher or the battery may be damaged. Chargers take from a few minutes
to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without voltage or temperature-
sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a
full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours, depending on the
model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple
ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature,
etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest
chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs
intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect
the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts. Different battery
chemistries require different charging schemes. For example, some battery types can be
safely recharged from a constant voltage source. Other types need to be charged with a
regulated current source that tapers as the battery reaches fully charged voltage. Charging
a battery incorrectly can damage a battery; in extreme cases, batteries can overheat, catch
fire, or explosively vent their contents
 52

TYPES

The lead-acid battery, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté, is the oldest type
of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-
to- volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a
relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with the low cost, makes it
attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter
motors.

The nickel cadmium battery (NiCd) was invented by Waldemar Jungner of Sweden in 1899.
It uses nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Cadmium is a toxic
element and was banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickel-cadmium
batteries have been almost completely superseded by nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries.

The nickel-metal hydride battery (NiMH) became available in 1989 These are now a
common consumer and industrial type. The battery has a hydro gen-absorbing alloy for the
negative electrode instead of cadmium.

The lithium-ion battery was introduced in the market in 1991, is the choice in most
consumer electronics, having the best energy density and a very slow loss of charge when
not in use. It does have drawbacks too, particularly the risk of unexpected ignition from the
heat generated by the battery . Such incidents are rare and according to experts, they can be
minimized "via appropriate design, installation, procedures and layers of safeguards" so the
risk is acceptable.

Lithium-ion polymer batteries (LiPo) are light in weight, offer slightly higher energy density
than Li-ion at slightly higher cost, and can be made in any shape. They are available but
have not displaced Li-ion in the market A primary use is for LiPo batteries is in powering
remote- controlled cars, boats and airplanes. LiPo packs are readily available on the
consumer market, in various configurations, up to 44.4v, for powering certain R/C vehicles
and helicopters or drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are
not used in accordance with the instructions. Independent reviews of the technology discuss
the risk of fire and explosion from Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions because
they use liquid electrolytes.
 53

ALTERNATIVES

A rechargeable battery is only one of several types of rechargeable energy storage systems.
1 Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For uses such
as portable radios, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork mechanisms which
are wound up by hand, driving dynamos, although this system may be used to charge a
battery rather than to operate the radio directly. Flashlights may be driven by a dynamo
directly. For transportation, uninterruptible power supply systems and laboratories, flywheel
energy storage systems store energy in a spinning rotor for conversion to electric power
when needed; such systems may be used to provide large pulses of power that would
otherwise beobjectionable on a common electrical grid. Ultracapacitors capacitors of
extremely high value- are also used; an electric screwdriver which charges in 90 seconds and
will drive about half as many screws as a device using a rechargeable battery was introduced
in 2007, and similar flashlights have been produced. In keeping with the concept of
ultracapacitors, beta volta ic batteries may be utilized as a method of providing a trickle-
charge to a secondary battery, greatly extending the life and energy capacity of the battery
system being employed; this type of arrangement is often referred to as a "hybrid betavoltaic
power source" by those in the industry. Ultracapacitors are being developed for
transportation, using a large capacitor to store energy instead of the rechargeable battery
banks used in hybrid vehicles. One drawback of capacitors compared to batteries is that the
terminal voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25% of its initial energy left in it will
have one-half of its initial voltage. By contrast, battery systems tend to have a terminal
voltage that does not decline rapidly until nearly exhausted. The undesirable characteristic
complicates the design of power electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However, there are
potential benefits in cycle efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with rechargeable
systems. China started using ultracapacitors on two commercial bus routes in 2006; one of
them is route 11 in Shanghai. Flow batteries, used for specialized applications, are recharged
by replacing the electrolyte liquid. A flow battery can be considered to be a type of
rechargeable fuel cell
 54

SOLENOID VALVE

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by an

electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or
off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports.
Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold. Solenoid valves are the most
frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose,
distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and
safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials
used, low control power and compact design. Besides the plunger-type actuator which is
used most frequently, pivoted-armature actuators and rocker actuators are also used.

Materials

The valve body must be compatible with the fluid; common materials are brass, stainless
steel aluminum, and plastic. [12] The seals must be compatible with the fluid. To simplify
the sealing issues, the plugnut, core, springs, shading ring, and other components are often
exposed to the fluid, so they must be compatible as well. The requirements present some
special problems. The core tube needs to be non-magnetic to pass the solenoid's field
through to the plugnut and the core. The plugnut and core need a material with good
magnetic properties such as iron, but iron is prone to corrosion. Stainless steels can be used
because they come in both magnetic and non-magnetic varieties.[13] For example, a
solenoid valve might use 304 stainless steel for the body, 305 stainless steel for the core
tube, 302 stainless steel for the springs, and 430 F stainless steel (a magnetic stainless steel
[14]) for the core and plugnut

TYPES

Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, one-solenoid valve described above:
 55
· one- or two-solenoid valves;
.direct current or alternating current powered;
· different number of ways and positions;

COMMON USES

Solenoid valves are used in fluid power pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to control
cylinders, fluid power motors or larger industrial valves. Automatic irrigation sprinkler
systems also use solenoid valves with an automatic controller. Domestic washing machines
and dishwashers use solenoid valves to control water entry into the machine. They are also
often used in paintball gun triggers to actuate the CO2 hammer valve. Solenoid valves are
usually referred to simply as "solenoids."
Solenoid valves can be used for a wide array of industrial applications, including general on-
off control, calibration and test stands, pilot plant control loops, process control systems, and
various original equipment manufacturer applications.
 56

MAINTENANCE

To ensure all compressor types run efficiently with no leaks, it is imperative to perform routine
maintenance, such as monitoring and replacing air compressor fittings. [8] It is suggested that
air compressor owners perform daily inspections of their equipment, such as:
· Checking for oil and air leaks
Checking the differential pressure in the compressed air filter
Determining whether or not the oil in the compressor should be changed
· Verify safe operating temperature to avoid overheating the unit and it is used in sucking the
air
· Draining condensed moisture from the tank
CALCULATIONS OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM USING EXHAUST GAS ( DC MOTOR )

SAMPLE CALCULATION

Motor 1624T009S is to be operated with 9 volts applied to the motor terminals. The torque
load is 0.2 oz-in. Find the resulting motor speed, motor current, efficiency, and mechanical
power output. From the motor datasheet, it can be seen that the no-load speed of the motor at
12 volts is 11,700 rpm. If the torque load is not coupled to the motor shaft, the motor would
run at this speed.
The motor speed under load is simply the no-load speed less the reduction in speed due to the
load. The proportionality constant for the relationship between motor speed and motor torque
is the slope of the torque vs. speed curve, given by the motor no-load speed divided by the stall
torque. In this example, the speed reduction caused by the 0.2 oz -in torque load is:
0.2 oz-in x (11,700 rpm/.634 oz-in) = - 3,690 rpm
The motor speed under load must then be:
11,700 rpm - 3,690 rpm = 8,010 rpm
 57

The motor current under load is the sum of the no-load current and the current resulting from
the load. The proportionality constant relating current to torque load is the torque constant
(kM), in this case, 1.039 oz - in/ A. In this case, the load torque is 0.2 oz-in, and the current
resulting from the load must be:
I= 0.2 oz-in x 1 amp/1.039 oz -in = 192 mA
The total motor current must be the sum of this value and the motor no-load current. The
data sheet lists the motor no-load current as 60 mA. Therefore, the total current is:
192 mA + 12 mA = 204 mA
The mechanical power output of the motor is simply the product of the motor speed and the
torque load with a correction factor for units (if required). Therefore, the mechanical power
output of the motor in this application is:
output power = 0.2 oz-in x 8,010 rpm x 0.00074 = 1.18 Watts
The mechanical power input to the motor is the product of the applied voltage and the total
motor current in Amps. In this application:
input power = 9 volts x 0.203 A = 1.82Watts
Since efficiency is simply power out divided by power in, the efficiency in this application
is:
efficiency = 1.18 Watts / 1.82 Watts = 0.65 =65%

COMPONENTS LISTS AND COST ESTIMATION

> ENGINE - SCOOTY ENGINE - 8000

> PNEUMATIC VALVE- 600
> CHASIS - 1500
> PNEUMATIC CYLINDER- 1200
> DC GENERATOR - 300
 BATTERY 12V- 450
 > DC COMPRESSOR - 4000
 > WIRING AND SWITCHING - 200
 > DEVELOPMENT COST- 5000
 > MISCILLEANOUS - 2000
 58

Chapter 4
ADVANTAGES AND
APPLICATIONS

ADVANTAGES

It reduces the battery power

2.It increases the engine efficiency

3.It occupies less floor space

4.It reduces the air pollution

DISADVANTAGES

1.Initial cost is high

2.Need a separate compressor

3.Maintenance cost is high

APPLICATIONS

1.For automobile application

2.Industrial application
 59

Chapter 5
CONCLUSION

CONCLUSIONS

In this project we have obtained a revolutionary process in the field of mechanical and
automobile. Here the pneumatic cylinder is actuated by using the compressor that is
powered by the elect rical power generated from the engine's exhaust gas. This project has
also reduced the cost involved in the concern. It has been designed to perform the entire
requirement task which has also been provided.
 60

Chapter 6
REFERENCE

REFERENCES

[1] Development of a model for an air brake system with leaks -Srivatsan Ramarathnam
(est.al)- 2003
[2] Pressure control scheme for air brakes in commercial vehicles -C.L. Bowlin (est.al)- Apr
2006
[3]A new advanced power-generation system using chemical- looping combustion-Masaru
Ishida Diesel engine exhaust gas recirculation-Ming Zheng (est.al)-2011 [4] Power
generation with gas turbine systems and combined heat and power-P.A
Pilavachi-2004
[5] Power generation using coir pith and wood derived producer gas in diesel engines-A.S.
Ramadhas (est.al)
[6] A Diagnostic System for Air Brakes in Commercial Vehicles-Swaroop Darbha -2009