Chapter 2

The Natural Number System

 Peano Axioms
• The goal in these axioms is to first establish
the existence of one natural number and then
define a function, called the successor
function, to generate the remaining natural
numbers.
• Each of these axioms, listed P1 to P3 below, is
crucial to the properties that the set of natural
numbers enjoy.
 one natural number
• P1. 1 N, i.e., 1 is a natural number.
• P1 guarantees the existence of one natural
number. We now generate more natural
numbers using the successor function.
• So, we assume the existence of a successor
function S defined on N.
• The existence of the successor function is a
property unique to the set of natural numbers
 Successor function
• P2. There exists an injective function S : N N 
1. Here, for each x  N; S(x) is called the
successor of x.
• Axiom P2 implies that 1 is not the successor of
any natural number. As S(1)  1, denote S(1) by 2.
• Now S(S(1)), which is S(2), is different from both 1
and 2. Denote S(2) by 3.
• By a similar argument, denote S(3) to be 4, S(4) to
be 5, etc.
• From this argument each of the elements of
the set 1; 2; 3; … is also an element of N.
Thus, the axiomatic/formal definition of N
includes all the usual elements, i.e., 1; 2; 3; . . .
• Further, to exclude versions of N that are `too
large', the last axiom, called the Axiom of
Induction is stated next.
 Axiom of Induction
• P3. [Axiom of Induction] Let X  N be such
that
1. 1  X, and
2. for each x  X, S(x)  X.
Then X = N.
• Axioms P1 and P2 ensure that 1; 2; …  N.
Further, as 1 1; 2; … and for each n 1; 2; …
; S(n)  1; 2;…, Axiom P3 ensures that that N
= 1; 2;….
• The next result ensures that any natural
number different from 1 has to be a successor
of some other natural number.
• This, in effect, re-emphasizes the Axioms P2
and P3.
• Lemma If n  N and n  1, then there exists m
 N such that S(m) = n.
 Arithmetic on natural numbers
• The existence of the set of natural numbers has
been established axiomatically.
• So, we now discuss the arithmetic on N, an
important property of the set of natural numbers.
• The arithmetic in N that touches every aspect of
our lives is clearly addition and multiplication. So,
depending solely on the Peano axioms, we define
the operation of addition on N. 1 is always a
natural number by Axiom P1.
• First, we establish what it means to add 1 to a
natural number n.
• Here, we define n + 1 = S(n). We now wish to
add any two natural numbers n and m. Without
loss of generality assume that m1. From
Lemma, there exists k  N such that m = S(k).
• So, to define n+m, it is sufficient to define n +
S(k). We do this by using the following recursive
definition: n + S(k) = S(n + k).
• For example, suppose we wish to compute
1+2. By the paragraph after Axiom P2, 2 = S(1).
So, 1 + 2 = 1 + S(1).
• By the above definition, 1 + S(1) = S(1 + 1) and
1 + 1 = S(1), which is 2 by the paragraph after
Axiom P2.
• Thus, 1 + S(1) = S(1 + 1) = S(2) = 3. An iteration
of this process will generate the usual addition
on N.
 addition definition
• Definition. We define addition as follows.
• 1. For each n  N, n + 1 := S(n), and
• 2. for each m; n  N, n + S(m) := S(n + m).
• Using a similar argument, axiomatic
multiplication "." can be defined. First, set n1
to be n.
• The multiplication of arbitrary natural
numbers is now defined in a recursive manner.
 multiplication Definition
• Definition. The multiplication of two natural
numbers is defined as follows.
• 1. For all n  N, n 1 := n, and
• 2. for all m; n  N, n  S(m) := (n  m) + n.
• We follow the usual convention of writing (n 
m) + k as n  m + k.
• Using the above axiomatic definitions of both
addition and multiplication, we derive the
properties of the set of natural numbers N.
 Associativity of addition
• 1. [Associativity of addition] For every n; m; k
N, n + (m + k) = (n + m) + k.
• Proof. Let X = k N : for all m; n  N; n + (m +
k) = (n + m) + k. We show that X = N.
• Let n;m  N. As n + (m + 1) = n + S(m)
(Definition)
= S(n + m) (Definition)
= (n + m) + 1; (Definition)
• we get 1  X. Now, let z  X and let us show that
S(z)  X. As z  X, by definition of X
• n + (m + z) = (n + m) + z; for all n;m  N:
• Therefore, using the definition of X and Equation
(2.1),
• we see that n+(m+S(z)) = n+S(m+z) = S(n+(m+z)) =
S((n+m)+z) = (n+m)+S(z) for all n;m N:
• Hence, S(z) 2 X and thus by the induction axiom,
Axiom P3, X = N.
 Commutativity of addition
• 2. [Commutativity of addition] For every x; y  N; x +
y = y + x.
• Proof. Let X = k N : for all n  N; n + k = k + n. We
show that X = N.
• To show 1  X, we define the set Y to be Y = n N : n
+ 1 = 1 + n; for all n N and prove that Y = N.
• Firstly, 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 and hence 1 Y . Now, let y Y .
To show S(y)  Y . But, y Y implies that 1 + y = y + 1
and hence
• 1 + S(y) = S(1 + y) = S(y + 1) = S(S(y)) = S(y) + 1:
• Thus, S(y)  Y and hence by Axiom P3, Y = N.
Therefore, we conclude that 1  X.
• Now, let z  X. To show S(z)  X. But, z  X implies
that n+z = z +n, for all n  N. Thus, using 1  X, n
+ z = z + n, for all n  N and associativity, one has
• n + S(z) = n + (z + 1) = (n + z) + 1 = (z + n) + 1 = 1 +
(z + n) = (1 + z) + n = S(z) + n;
• for all n  N. Hence, S(z)  X and thus by Axiom
P3, X = N.
 Distributive law
• 3. [Distributive law] For every n; m; k  N, n (m +
k) = n  m + n  k.
• Proof. Let X = k  N : for all m; n N; n  (m + k) =
n  m + n  k. We show that X = N.
• 1  X as for each n;m N,
• n (m + 1) = n  S(m) = n  m + n = n  m + n  1:
• Now, let z  X and let us show that S(z) X. Since z
X
• n (m + z) = n  m + n  z; for all n;m N:
• Thus, by definition and Equation (2.2), we see
that
• n(m+S(z)) = nS(m+z) = n(m+z)+n = (nm+nz)+n
= nm+(nz+n) = nm+nS(z);
• for all n;m N. Hence, S(z) X and thus by
Axiom P3, X = N.
Property of addition and multiplication
• 1. [Uniqueness of addition] For every m; n; k 
N, if m = n then m + k = n + k
• 2. [Additive cancellation] For every x; y  N, if x
+ z = y + z for some z  N then x = y
• 3. [Associativity of multiplication] For every x;
y; z N, x (y  z) = (x  y) z
• 4. [Multiplication by 1] For each n N; 1  n =
n
• 5. [Second distributive law] For every n; m; k
N, (m + n) k = m  k + n  k
• 6. [Commutativity of multiplication] For each
m; n N; n  m = m  n
• 7. [Uniqueness of multiplication] For every m;
n; k N, whenever m = n then m  k = n  k
• 8. [Multiplicative cancellation] For every x; y
N, if x  z = y  z for some z  N then x = y
 Principle of Mathematical Induction
• Mathematical Induction is an important and useful
technique used for proofs in Mathematics.
• Let P(n) be a statement which may or may not be true
for any natural number n. Consider the set X = n N :
P(n) is true . The axiom of induction states that if 1 X
and n  X implies n + 1 = S(n)  X, for all n  N then X = N.
• In other words, if P(1) is true and P(n) is true implies P(n
+ 1) is true for all n  N then one concludes that P(n) is
true for all n  N. The formal description is given below.
Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI)

• [Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI)] Let

P(n) be a statement (proposition) dependent on
a natural number n N such that the following
hold:
• 1. Base step: P(1) is true.
• 2. Induction step: for each n N, the statement
P(n) is true implies P(n + 1) is true.
• Then, P(n) is true for all n N.
• We give an analogy, to the above principle.
 Principle of strong induction (PSI)
• Theorem [Principle of strong induction (PSI)]
Let P(n) be a statement dependent on n N
such that the following hold:
• 1. Base step: P(1) is true.
• 2. Induction step: For each n N, P(1); P(2); : : :
; P(n) are all true implies P(n + 1) is true.
• Then, P(n) is true for all n N.
Well Ordering Property of Natural Numbers

• we introduce an ordering, denoted by <, on N. So, for

any m; n N, we need to define what n < m means?
• Definition. Let m; n  N. Then, the natural number n is
said to be strictly less than the natural number m,
denoted by n < m, (in word, n is less than m) if there
exists a k N such that m = n + k.
• Further, n m will imply that either n = m or n < m.
When n < m, we also write m > n and read it as m is
greater than n.
• We prove some properties of N with the ordering <.
• Lemma [Transitivity] Let x; y; z N such that x <
y and y < z. Then x < z.
• Lemma For all m; n N; m  m + n.
• Lemma. [Law of trichotomy] For all m; n N,
exactly one of the following is true:
• n < m; n = m; n > m:
• Lemma. For all m; n 2 N, m n if and only if m <
n + 1.
 Recursion Theorem
• For any xed n N, we defined addition by
declaring that n+1 := S(n) and n+S(m) :=
S(n+m). Due to induction, we remarked that
for each m N, these two conditions defined
n+m. This intuitive work requires a formal
justication. Notice that + is a binary operation
on N, that is, + is a function from NN to N.
 Recursion Theorem
• Theorem . [Recursion Theorem] Let f : N N
be a function. Then, for any fixed natural
number , there exists a unique function g : N
N such that g(1) = and g(S(x)) = f(g(x)) for
each x N:
• Example 1. [Addition function] Let f : N N be
the function defined by f(x) = S(x), for all x N.
Fix any element y N. By the recursion
theorem, there exists a unique function
• g : N N such that g(1) = S(y) and f(g(x)) =
g(S(x)); for all x N: (2.4)
• Define for all x N; y + x := g(x) (2.5)
• When x = 1, from Equation (2.5), we get y + 1 = g(1). As
g(1) = S(y), we get y + 1 = S(y).
• Further, for any x N, we see that
• y + S(x) = g(S(x)) (using Equation (2.5))
• = f(g(x)) (using f(g(x)) = g(S(x)))
• = S(g(x)) (using f(x) = S(x))
• = S(y + x): (using g(x) = y + x)
• Thus, for all y; x N, y + S(x) = S(y + x). Hence, both the
rules of addition stated in stated in Denition are
satised.
 Multiplication function
• 2. [Multiplication function] Fix an element y N and consider
the function f : N N defined
• by f(x) = x + y. (Observe that this is well defined by Part 1. )
• Then, by the recursion theorem, there exists a unique
function h : N N, such that h(1) = y and f(h(x)) = h(S(x)), for
all x N. Now, define y x := h(x), for all x N.
• Then, for x = 1, we get y 1 = h(1) = y. Further, for any x N,
we see that
• y S(x) = h(S(x)) = f(h(x)) = f(y x) = y x + y;
• thereby, proving both the rules of multiplication stated in
Definition.
 Power function
• 3. [Power function] Fix an element m N and consider
the function f : N N defined by
• f(x) = x  m. (Part 2 allows us to define such a function.)
• Then, by the recursion theorem, there exists a unique
function p : N N, such that p(1) = m and f(p(x)) =
p(S(x)), for all x N. Now, define mx := p(x), for all x N.
• Then, for x = 1, we get m1 = p(1) = m. Further, for any x
N, S(x) = x + 1 gives
• mx+1 = mS(x) = p(S(x)) = f(p(x)) = p(x) m = (mx) m:
• Hence, we have obtained the required power function.