Data Collection

Methods

CHAPTER 8
 Chapter Objectives
• Know the difference between primary and
secondary data and their sources.
• Make logical decisions as to the appropriate
data collection methods for specific study.
• Be able to demonstrate your skills in
interviewing others, and to design
questionnaires.
 Sources of Data
• Primary data: information obtained firsthand by
the researcher on the variables of interest for the
specific purpose of the study.

• Examples: individuals, focus groups, panels

• Secondary data: information gathered from

sources already existing.

• Examples: company records or archives,

government publications, industry analyses offered
by the media, web sites, the Internet, and so on.
 Primary data
• Primary data refer to first-hand information that can
be obtained by the researcher, with these following
methods:
• A. Focus Group (FG)
• consist typically of eight to ten members with a
neutral moderator leading the discussions for about
two hours on a particular topic, concept, or product.
Members are generally chosen on the basis of their
expertise in the topic on which information is
sought, and they must not dominates the group.
 B. Panels

• Panels
• Just the same with FG but (of members) meet more than once, as long they arrive at a
specific conclusion
• Static, the same members serve on the panel over extended periods of time.
• Dynamic, the panel members change from time to time as various phases of the study
are in progress.
• Delphi Technique is a forecasting method that uses a cautiously selected panel of
experts (with unrevealed identity, to prevent dominations between them) in a
systematic, interactive manner. These experts answer questionnaires in two or more
rounds. It has been widely used for long-run business forecasting. First round they are
asked to answer a series of questions on the likelihood of a future scenario or any
other issue about which there is unsure or incomplete knowledge. Then the answers
are collected, summarized, and fed back in the form of a second-round. Second round
assess the same issue once more, taking the opinions of other experts into account.
This process goes on until it is stopped by the researcher. The rationale behind this
iterative process is that it eventually may lead to a consensus about the issue that is
being investigated.
 Unobtrusive Sources
• primary source that does not involve people.
• Example: the number of different brands of
soft drink cans found in trash bags also
provides a measure of their consumption
levels
 Data collection Methods
• Data collection methods include three main
methods:
1- Interviewing: It could be unstructured or
structured interviews.
2- Questionnaires
3- Other Methods of Data Collection
(Observational Surveys, Nonparticipant-
Observer Participant-Observer)
 Interviewing

 The unstructured and structured interviews have

several forms:
Interviews Face-to-face
Telephone interviews
Computer-assisted interviews
Electronic media interviews
 Unstructured Interviews
• Unstructured Interviews are so labeled
because the interviewer does not enter the
interview setting with a planned sequence of
questions to be asked of the respondent.
• The objective of the unstructured interview is
to bring some preliminary issues to the
surface so that the researcher can determine
what variables need further in-depth
investigation.
 Structured Interviews
• Structured Interviews are those conducted when it
is known at the outset what information is needed.
• The interviewer has a list of predetermined
questions to be asked of the respondents either
personally, through the telephone or through the
medium of a PC.
• The questions are likely to focus on factors that
had surfaced during the unstructured interviews
and are considered relevant to the problem.
 Interviewing
• The Questioning Technique
 Funneling
In the beginning of an unstructured interview, it is
advisable to ask open-ended questions to get a broad idea
and form some impressions about the situation. For
example a question that could be asked, would be:
“what are some of your feelings about working for this
organization?”
 Interviewing
• The Questioning Technique
Unbiased Questions
It is important to ask questions in a way that would
ensure the least bias in the response. For example:
“Tell me how you experience your job”
this question is better than,
“The work you do must be really boring; let me
hear how you experience it”
 Interviewing
• The Questioning Technique
 Clarifying Issues
To make sure that the researcher understands issues as the respondent
intends to represent them, it is advisable to restate or rephrase
important information given by the respondent. For example, if the
interviewee says,
“There is an unfair promotion policy in this organization; seniority does
not count at all. It is the juniors who always get promoted”.
The researcher might interject and ask,
“So you are saying that juniors always get promoted over the heads of
even capable seniors.”
 Interviewing
• The Questioning Technique
 Taking Notes
when conducting interviews, it is important that the
researcher makes written notes as the interviews are
taking place, or as soon as the interview is terminated. The
interviewer should not rely on memory. Information based
solely on recall introduces bias into the research.
The interviews can be recorded on tape if the respondent
has no objections.
 Data collection Methods
Administering Questionnaires
Personally administered.
Sent through the mail.
Electronically administered.
 Personal Interview
• Advantages
– Can clarify doubts about questionnaire
– Can pick up non-verbal cues
– Relatively high response/cooperation
– Special visual aids and scoring devises can be used

• Disadvantages
– High costs and time intensive
– Geographical limitations
– Response bias / Confidentiality difficult to be assured
– Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers
– Trained interviewers
 Telephone Interview
• Advantages
– Discomfort of face to face is avoided
– Faster / Number of calls per day could be high
– Lower cost

• Disadvantages
– Interview length must be limited
– Low response rate
– No facial expressions
Tips for Interviews
 Questionnaire Design

 Definition
– A questionnaire is a pre-formulated, written set of
questions to which the respondent records his answers

 Steps
1. Determine the content of the questionnaire
2. Determine the form of response
3. Determine the wording of the questions
4. Determine the question sequence
5. Write cover letter
 Question Wording
• Avoid double-barreled questions

• Avoid ambiguous questions and words

• Use of ordinary words

• Avoid leading or biasing questions

• Social desirability

• Avoid recall depended questions

 Type and Form of Questions

• Type and Form of Questions

• Type of question refers to whether the question will be open-ended or
closed. Form refers to positively and negatively worded questions.
• Open-Ended versus Closed Questions
• Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer them in any way they
choose. An example of an open-ended question is asking the respondent to
state five things that are interesting and challenging in the job.
• A closed question, in contrast, would ask the respondents to make choices
among a set of alternatives given by the researcher. For instance, the
researcher might list 10 or 15 aspects that might seem interesting or
challenging in jobs and ask the respondents to rank the first five among
these in the order of their preference. Closed questions help the
respondents to make quick decisions to choose among the several
alternatives before them.
 Continue…
• ii. Positively and Negatively Worded Questions
• Instead of phrasing all questions positively, it is advisable to include
some negatively worded questions as well, so the tendency in
respondents to mechanically circle the points toward one ended of the
scale is minimized.
• iii. Double-Barreled Questions
• A question that lends itself to different possible responses to its subparts
is called a double-barreled question. Such questions should be avoided
and two or more separate questions asked instead. For example, the
question “Do you think there is a good market for the product and that it
will sell well?”could bring a “yes” response to the first part (i.e., there is
a good market for the product) and a “no” response to the latter part
(i.e., it will not sell well for various other reasons). In this case, it would
be better to ask two questions: (1) “Do you think there is a good market
for the product?” and (2) “Do you think the product will sell well?”
 Continue..
• Ambiguous Questions
• Even questions that are not double-barreled might be ambiguously worded and
the respondent may not be sure what exactly they mean. An example of such a
question is “To what extent would you say you are happy?” Respondents might
find it difficult to decide whether the question refers to their state of feelings at
the workplace, or at home, or in general.
• Recall-Dependent Questions
• Some questions might require respondents to recall experiences from the past
that are hazy in their memory. Answers to such questions might have bias. Who
is the main character in the novel ? When does this even take place ?
• Leading Questions
• Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents
to give the responses that the researcher would like or want them to give. An
example of such a question is: “Don’t you think that in these days of escalating
costs of living, employees should be given good pay raises?” insisting the
person to say yes
 Continue..
• Loaded Questions
• Another type of bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally
charged manner. An example of such a loaded question is asking employees: “To
what extent do you think management is likely to be vindictive(revengeful) if the
Union decides to go on strike?”
• Social Desirability
• Questions should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable responses,
For instance, a question such as “Do you think that older people should be laid
off?” would elicit a response of “no”
• Length of Questions
• Finally, simple, short questions are preferable to long ones. As a rule of thumb, a
question or a statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or
exceed one full line in print.
• Sequencing of Questions
• The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be such that the
respondent is led from questions of a general nature to those that are more
specific, and from questions that are relatively easy to answer to those that are
progressively more difficult.
 Other Methods of Data Collection

• Observational Surveys
• Whereas interviews and questionnaires elicit responses from the subjects, it
is possible to gather data without asking questions of respondents.
• a. Nonparticipant-Observer
• The researcher may collect the needed data in that capacity without
becoming an integral part of the organizational system. For example, the
researcher might sit in the corner of an office and watch and record how the
manager spends her time.
• b. Participant-Observer
• The researcher may also play the role of the participant-observer. Here, the
researcher enters the organization or the research setting, and becomes a
part of the work organizations, then she may join the organization as an
employee and observe the dynamics in groups while being a part of the
work organization.
 Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
• Classification Data or Personal Information.
Personal information means such information
as age, educational level, marital status, and
income.
 Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to
ask for the name of the respondent.
 It is a matter of choice for the researcher to let
the personal information appears in the
beginning or at the end of the questionnaire
 Guidelines for Questionnaire Design

• Classification Data or Personal Information.

 It is a wise policy to ask for the personal
information by providing a range of response
options, rather than asking exact figures. For
example, the variables can be tapped as
shown below:
 Guidelines for Questionnaire Design
• Example 1
Age (years) Annual Income
 Under 20 □ Less than $20,000
20 – 30 □ $20,000-30,000
31 – 40 □ $30,001-40,000
41 – 50 □ $40,001-50,000
51 – 60 □ $50,001-70,000
Over 60 □ $ Over 70,000
 General Appearance of the Questionnaire

• It is necessary to pay attention to how the

questionnaire looks. An attractive and neat
questionnaire have the following elements:
 A good introduction
 Organizing questions
 Giving instructions and guidance
 Good alignment
 Cover Letter

 The cover letter is the introductory page of the

questionnaire
 It includes:
 Identification of the researcher
 Motivation for respondents to fill it in
 Confidentiality
 Thanking of the respondent
General Appearance of the Questionnaire
• Example 2
A production manager wants to assess the reactions
of the blue-collar workers in his department to the
introduction of computer-integrated manufacturing
(CIM) systems. He is particularly interested to know
how they would perceive the effects of CIM on:
a. their future jobs
b. additional training that they will have to
receive
c. future job advancement.
• Design a questionnaire for the production
manager.
General Appearance of the Questionnaire
Questionnaire
Jordan Software Enterprises
P.O.Box 2231
Amman-Jordan
Date-----
Dear Employee,
As we had discussed in our meetings, Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) will form a part of our operations in the future. We
would like to know how you visualize certain aspects of the future
environment as we introduce the changes.
Please take a few minutes to complete this short questionnaire and
return it to the locked box in the headquarter office.

Thank you for responding within the next five days.

Ahmad Rasheed
Production Manager
General Appearance of the Questionnaire
1. Personal information ( place a mark on the appropriate place)
Job Status Number of years
Worked in the Department
--Machinist -- Less than 1
--Inspector -- 1-2--
--Forman -- 3-5
--Surveyor -- 5-10
-- Other -- Over 10 years
1. Personal information ( place a mark on the appropriate place)
Job Status Number of years
Worked in the Department
--Machinist -- Less than 1
--Inspector -- 1-2--
--Forman -- 3-5
--Surveyor -- 5-10
-- Other -- Over 10 years
 General Appearance of
the Questionnaire
2. Your Opinion regarding the following.
Please circle the appropriate number for each of the following items using the
scale below.
Strongly Neither Agree Strongly
Agree Agree Nor Disagree Disagree Disagree
1 2 3 4 5
1. I will need additional training 1 2 3 4 5
to work in the changed
environment.
2. The new system will offer me 1 2 3 4 5
better opportunities for
advancement.
3. The opportunities for training 1 2 3 4 5
will have to be enhanced with
CIM.

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 General Appearance of the
Questionnaire
4. I am not sure if CIM will need 1 2 3 4 5
all the people we now have in
this department.
5. I feel that most of us may not 1 2 3 4 5
have better opportunities for future
promotions in the new manufacturing
environment.
6. Most of us will need special 1 2 3 4 5
training to work with CIM.
7. I am sure the future looks bright 1 2 3 4 5
for most of us here.

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 General Appearance of the
Questionnaire

• Items 4 and 7 measure opinion about their

future jobs.
• 1, 3, and 6 measure perceived training
needs.
• 2, and 5 measure job advancement.

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 Practice Exercise on Good and Bad
Questions
• Comment on each of the following questions
stating whether they are good or bad and the
reasons for your answer. Do not worry about their
scaling.
1. If you have been in the company for over 15
years, please indicate the date of your joining this
company.
2. My boss is good but excitable in his dealing with
others.
3. Working women should opt not to have children.

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 Practice Exercise on Good and Bad
Questions

4. Investment in children’s future should be

an important goal of the administration.
5. This job uses a lot of the skills that I
possess.
6. If this country is to remain competitive,
should we not be spending more on
research?

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