CONCEPTS OF OS

BASIC CONCEPTS OF OPERATING

SYSTEMS
An operating system (OS) is a crucial software component that manages computer
hardware and provides services for computer programs. Here are some basic concepts
related to operating systems:
1. Kernel
2. Processes
3. Memory Management
4. File Systems
5. Device Drivers
6. User Interface
7. Security
8. System Calls
9. Schedulers
10. Bootsrapping
11. Concurrence and parallelism
Kernel
The core component of an operating system is the kernel.
It is responsible for managing the hardware resources of
the computer, including memory, CPU, input/output
devices, and system calls.

It acts as an intermediary between the computer's

hardware and the higher-level software applications. The
primary functions of a kernel include managing system
resources, providing a secure and isolated execution
environment for applications, and facilitating
communication between hardware and software
components.
Kernel
1.Resource Management:
1. The kernel is responsible for managing the computer's resources, including
CPU time, memory, disk I/O, and peripherals.
2. It allocates resources to different processes, ensuring fair and efficient
usage.
2.Process Management:
1. The kernel oversees the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes
(individual instances of running programs).
2. It provides mechanisms for inter-process communication and
synchronization.
3.Memory Management:
1. The kernel allocates and deallocates memory for processes.
2. It enforces memory protection to prevent one process from accessing the
memory space of another.
Kernel
1.Device Drivers:
1. The kernel includes device drivers, which are specialized programs that
enable communication between the operating system and hardware devices
(e.g., disk drives, network interfaces, printers).
2. Device drivers facilitate standardized access to diverse hardware
components.
2.File System Management:
1. The kernel manages file systems, providing an abstraction for data storage
on disks and other storage devices.
2. It handles file creation, deletion, and access.
3.Security:
1. The kernel enforces security policies to protect the system and user data.
2. It controls access to system resources and ensures the isolation of processes.
Kernel
1.Interrupt Handling:
1.The kernel handles hardware interrupts, which are signals
from peripherals or the CPU that require immediate attention.
2.Interrupt handling ensures timely responses to external
events.
2.System Calls:
1.The kernel exposes a set of system calls, which are interfaces
that allow user-level applications to request services from the
operating system, such as file I/O, process creation, and
network communication.
Real Life comparison for deeper
explanation
Imagine your computer operating system as a bustling city, with various programs and applications representing different
buildings or businesses. Now, let's consider the kernel as the city's central management or governing body. Here's how the
analogy unfolds:
1. Resource Management (City Planning):
1. The kernel, like a city government, manages and allocates resources. It decides how much space each building (program) gets, ensuring fair
distribution of land (CPU time, memory, disk space) among the businesses (applications).

2. Process Management (Traffic Control):

1. Processes are like vehicles navigating the city streets. The kernel acts as traffic control, scheduling and coordinating the movement of these
vehicles (processes) to avoid congestion and ensure efficient use of roads (CPU).

3. Memory Management (Real Estate):

1. Memory is like the city's real estate. The kernel oversees the allocation of land (memory) to different businesses (programs), ensuring they
have enough space to operate without encroaching on each other's territory.

4. Device Drivers (Infrastructure Services):

1. Device drivers are like the infrastructure services in the city—electricity, water supply, etc. The kernel ensures that each building (program)
can connect to and utilize these services seamlessly, thanks to standardized interfaces provided by device drivers.

5. File System Management (City Planning Department):

1. The file system is akin to the city's planning department. The kernel manages the creation, deletion, and access to files, just as the planning
department oversees the development and management of structures within the city.

6. Security (Law Enforcement):

1. The kernel serves as the law enforcement agency, enforcing security policies to protect the city's residents (data and processes). It controls
access to resources and maintains order within the city.

7. Interrupt Handling (Emergency Response):

1. Interrupts are like emergency calls for immediate attention. The kernel, acting as emergency responders, handles these interrupts promptly to
address urgent matters affecting the city.

8. System Calls (Government Services):

1. System calls are like citizens requesting specific services from the city government. The kernel provides interfaces (service counters) through
which businesses (programs) can make requests for services like file access, network communication, and more.
Processes
In an operating system, a process is an executing instance of a program. It represents
the basic unit of work in a computer system and has its own memory space,
resources, and state. Here are some key concepts related to processes in operating
systems:
1.Process Creation
2.Process Termination
3.Process Scheduling
4.Process States
5.Context Switching
6.Inter-Process Communication (IPC)
7.Threads
8.Process Synchronization
9.Deadlocks
Process Control Block (PCB)
10.
Memory Management
Memory management is a crucial aspect of operating
systems, responsible for efficiently handling the
computer's memory resources. There are several types of
memory management techniques employed by operating
systems:
Paging
Segmentation
Segmentation with page
Memory Management
1.Paging:
1. Paging divides physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called "pages" and
divides logical memory (used by processes) into equal-sized "page frames."
Processes are then divided into pages, and the operating system can map these
pages to any available page frame in physical memory. Paging helps overcome
external fragmentation but may lead to internal fragmentation.
2.Segmentation:
1. Segmentation divides the logical address space of a process into segments,
where each segment represents a functional unit (e.g., code, data, stack). Each
segment can grow or shrink dynamically. Segmentation can lead to
fragmentation, but it is more flexible than contiguous memory allocation.
3.Segmentation with Paging:
1. This is a combination of segmentation and paging. A process's logical address
space is divided into segments, and each segment is further divided into pages.
This approach combines the benefits of both segmentation and paging.
1.File Systems:
1. Operating systems organize and store data in files on storage devices. File
systems manage how files are stored, retrieved, and organized. Common
file operations include creation, deletion, reading, and writing.
2.Device Drivers:
1. Device drivers are software components that enable the operating system
to communicate with hardware devices such as printers, keyboards, and
storage devices. They act as intermediaries between the OS and the
hardware.
3.User Interface:
1. The user interface allows users to interact with the computer. It can be
command-line-based (text-based) or graphical (GUI), providing a more
intuitive and user-friendly experience. Examples include Windows, macOS,
and Linux desktop environments.
1.Security:
OS provides security mechanisms to protect data and resources. This includes user authentication,
access control, encryption, and firewall functionalities.
2.System Calls:
System calls are interfaces provided by the kernel for applications to request services from the
operating system. Examples include reading from or writing to files, creating processes, and
managing memory.
3.Schedulers:
Process scheduling ensures efficient and fair usage of the CPU by managing the execution of multiple
processes. Schedulers decide which process to run next, considering factors like priority and fairness.
4.Bootstrapping:
The process of starting or booting up the computer involves loading the operating system into
memory and initializing the necessary components. The bootstrapping process may involve a
bootloader and BIOS/UEFI.
5.Concurrency and Parallelism:
Operating systems manage concurrent execution of multiple processes. Parallelism involves
simultaneous execution of tasks, and modern operating systems often support multi-core processors
to achieve parallelism.
interrupts
Interrupts play a crucial role in operating systems by
allowing the CPU to efficiently handle external events or
conditions that require immediate attention. Here are the
key aspects of interrupts in operating systems.

An interrupt is a signal to the processor indicating that an

event has occurred that needs immediate attention. It is
a mechanism for interrupting the normal execution flow
of a program.
Types of Interrupts

• Hardware Interrupts: These are generated by

external hardware devices to signal events such as I/O
completion, hardware errors, or timer expiration.
• Software Interrupts: Also known as traps or
exceptions, these are initiated by programs or the CPU
itself to signal specific conditions, such as division by
zero or accessing invalid memory.
Types of Interrupts
• Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):
An ISR is a specific routine or piece of code associated
with a particular interrupt. When an interrupt occurs, the
CPU transfers control to the corresponding ISR to handle
the event.
• Interrupt Masking:
Interrupt masking is a mechanism to disable or enable
interrupts. When interrupts are masked, the CPU ignores
incoming interrupt signals. This is useful in situations
where the system needs to complete a critical section
without interruption.
• Interrupt Vector:
An interrupt vector is a data structure that contains information
about how to handle a specific interrupt. It typically includes the
memory address of the interrupt service routine (ISR), which is the
code that executes when the interrupt occurs.

• Interrupt Handling Process:

When an interrupt occurs, the CPU saves the current state
(registers, program counter, etc.) and jumps to the appropriate ISR
using the interrupt vector. After the ISR completes its execution,
the CPU restores the saved state and continues normal program
execution.
System Calls
• In computer programming and operating systems, a
supervisor call (also known as a system call or syscall)
is a mechanism for programs to request services from
the operating system's kernel. These services could
include operations that require higher privileges, access
to hardware, or other functionalities that are protected
and managed by the operating system.
Here's a simple example of a supervisor call in a Unix-like operating
system using the write system call in the C programming language:
 Are System Calls and libraries the
same?
While both system calls and libraries are mechanisms in computer programming that facilitate
interaction with the underlying operating system, they serve different purposes and operate
at different levels of abstraction.
1.System Calls:
•Purpose: System calls provide an interface between user-level applications and the
operating system kernel. They allow programs to request services or operations that
require privileged access, such as I/O operations, process control, and memory
management.
•Level of Abstraction: System calls operate at a low level of abstraction, involving
interactions with the kernel and core operating system services. Examples of system calls
include read, write, fork, exec, and open.
2.Libraries:
•Purpose: Libraries are collections of pre-compiled routines or functions that provide
higher-level functionalities to applications. They offer a set of reusable code that
applications can use to perform common tasks without needing to implement the
functionality from scratch.
•Level of Abstraction: Libraries operate at a higher level of abstraction compared to
system calls. They provide a more user-friendly interface and abstract away the
underlying system details. Examples of libraries include the C Standard Library (stdio.h,
stdlib.h), which provides functions like printf, scanf, and memory allocation functions.
Spooling
• which stands for "Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On-Line," is a
computer term that refers to a process used to improve the efficiency of
data processing. Spooling is particularly common in the context of printing
and I/O (Input/Output) operations.
• In a computing environment, spooling involves temporarily storing data in a
spool (a designated area in memory or on disk) before it is processed or
transferred to its final destination. This allows multiple tasks to be queued
and processed in a more orderly and efficient manner, preventing
bottlenecks and delays.
• One of the most common applications of spooling is in the printing process.
When a user sends a document to a printer, the data is spooled to a
temporary file or memory buffer. The spooling system then manages the
orderly and sequential transfer of data to the printer, allowing the user to
continue working on other tasks without waiting for the printing process to
complete.
Time Sharing
a computer system architecture and operating system concept that allows
multiple users to share the computing resources of a computer simultaneously.
The primary goal of time-sharing systems is to provide efficient and interactive
access to the computer for multiple users, enabling them to perform tasks
concurrently.
• Here are key aspects of time-sharing:
1.Resource Sharing:
1. Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to access the computer's resources, such as
the CPU, memory, and peripherals, concurrently.
2. Users share resources in small, interleaved time slices, giving the illusion of simultaneous
execution.
2.Time Slicing:
1. The CPU time is divided into small time slices or quantum intervals.
2. Each user or process is allocated a time slice during which they can execute their tasks. If
the task is not completed within the allocated time, it is preempted, and other tasks are
given a turn.
Buffering
Buffering is a technique used in computing and data
communication to temporarily store data in a buffer or
memory area before it is processed or transferred to
another location. The primary purpose of buffering is to
smooth out variations in the rate of data flow between
different components of a system, preventing delays and
improving overall efficiency.
1. Data Transfer Between Components:
1. Buffering is commonly used when there is a difference in the rate at which data is produced and consumed by two interacting components.
2. For example, in the context of I/O operations, buffering can be applied when data is read from or written to devices like disks or network
connections.
2. Preventing Underflow and Overflow:
1. Buffering helps prevent underflow and overflow situations. Underflow occurs when a component tries to read data that is not yet available,
leading to a potential wait or error. Overflow occurs when a component tries to write data to a location that is already full.
2. Buffers act as temporary storage, allowing the producer and consumer components to operate at different rates without causing data loss
or errors.
3. Improving Performance:
1. Buffering can enhance system performance by reducing the impact of latency. For example, in streaming media applications, buffering
allows a portion of the content to be loaded and stored in advance, ensuring a continuous playback experience even in the presence of
network fluctuations.
4. Smooth Data Flow:
1. Buffers contribute to the smooth flow of data by absorbing variations in processing speeds or transmission rates.
2. In the context of streaming or real-time applications, buffering helps maintain a consistent data flow, reducing the impact of delays or
fluctuations.
5. Example:
1. Consider a video streaming service where data is transmitted over a network. Instead of directly playing the video as it arrives, the system
may use buffering to store a certain amount of video data in advance. This buffer allows for a more consistent playback experience, even if
there are fluctuations in the network speed.
6. Buffer Size and Trade-offs:
1. The size of the buffer is an important consideration. A larger buffer can handle more significant variations in data rates but may introduce
additional latency. A smaller buffer reduces latency but may be more susceptible to disruptions in data flow.