FLOW MEASUREMENT

Gerardo M. Burgos Rivera #91756

Gabriel Nuñez #93540
Hector A. Ortiz Ramos #77118
José D. Ortiz Martínez #44175

Prof. Carlos R Miro

INTRODUCTION
The objective in this chapter is to present a broad discussion of flow
measurements and to indicate the principles of operation of a
number of devices that are commonly used. We shall also give the
calculation methods that are connected with some of these devices
and discuss some methods of flow visualization. Many research
projects and industrial processes depend on a measurement of fluid
flow to furnish important data for analysis, in some cases extreme
precision its needed. In the engineering industry is also vitally
interested because of the impact flow measurements may have on
the profit and loss statement of the company. Flow rate
measurements devices frequently required accurate pressure and
temperature measurements in order to calculate the output of the
instrument.
INTRODUCTION
Flow rate are expressed in both volume and mass units of varying sizes.
1 gallon per minute (gpm)
= 231 cubic inches per minute (in^3/min)
= 63.09 cubic centimeters per second (cm^3/s)
1 liter
= 0.26417 gallon = 1000 cubic centimeters
1 cubic foot per minute (cfm, or ft^3/min)
= 0.028317 cubic meter per minute
= 471.95 cubic centimeters per second
1 standard cubic foot per minute of air at 20°C, 1 atm
= 0.07513 pound-mass per minute
= 0.54579 gram per second
 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT
METHODS
The positive-displacement flowmeters are
generally used for those applications where
consistently high accuracy is desired under
steady-flow condition. A typical positive
displacement device is the home water meter.
This meter operates on the nutating-disk
principle. In order for fluid to move through
the disk must “wobble” or nutate about the
vertical axis since both the top and bottom of
the disk remain in contact with the mounting
chamber. As the disk nutates, it gives direct
indication of the volume of the liquid that has
passed. The volumetric flow rate its indicated
by gearing and arrangement these are
connected to the nutating disk.
NUTATING DISK METER
 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT
METHODS
The vanes are spring loaded so they
continuously maintain contact with the
casing of the meter. The fluid is trapped
in each section as the eccentric drum
rotates and the fluid eventually exits. A
register its connected to the shaft of
the eccentric drum to record the
volume of the displaced fluid.
ROTARY-VANE METER
 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT
METHODS
The lobed impeller meter may be used
for either gas or liquid flow
measurements. The impellers and the
case are carefully machined in the way
that the incoming fluid is always
trapped between the two rotors and
convey to the outlet due to their
rotation. The number of revolutions of
the rotors indicates the volumetric flow
rate.
LOBED-IMPELLER FLOWMETER
FLOW-OBSTRUCTION METHODS
There are several types of flowmeters that fall under the category of
obstruction. These devices are differential pressure meters they are known
because a head-loss or pressure drop measurements that are taken as an
indication of the flow rate.

The continuity Relation

Bernoulli Equation
 FLOW-OBSTRUCTION METHODS

ρ1 = ρ2 simultaneously for pressure drop Discharge Coefficient

Ideal gas
For the volumetric Flowrate

Universal gas constant

FLOW-OBSTRUCTION METHODS

Steady-flow energy equation for ideal gas

Combination of continuity, ideal gas and Steady-flow

 FLOW-OBSTRUCTION METHODS
Three typical obstruction meters are
the venturi, orifices and nozzles. The
venturi offers high accuracy and small
pressure drop, both the nozzle and the
orifice have high pressure drop.
VENTURI METER, FLOW NOZZLE &
ORIFICES
 PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
FOR OBSTRUCTION
METERS
The American society of
mechanical engineers
standardized the proportions of
venturi tubes. The discharged
coefficients for the venturi tubes
that are shown in the next slide
have tolerance limits indicated by
dashed lines. In general the
discharge is smaller for pipes with
less than 2 diameters. Most of the
flow coefficients are plotted as a
function or Reynolds number.

Cross-Sectional
Area
Reynolds number

Mass flow
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
OBSTRUCTION METERS
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
OBSTRUCTION METERS
THE SONIC NOZZLE
When the flow rate is sufficiently high, the pressure differential becomes
quite large, and eventually sonic flow conditions may be achieved at the
minimum flow area. These conditions of the flow are said to be “choked”,
and the flow takes the maximum value of the flow at the inlet.

Critical pressure ratio

Applied to a nozzle when pressure ratio is less than critical value

THE SONIC NOZZLE
The ideal flow depends on the inlet stagnation condition P1 and T1. These
conditions are usually easy to measure since the sonic nozzle offers a
convenient method for measuring gas-flow rates. The ideal sonic nozzle
flow rate must be modified to an appropriated discharge coefficient which
is a function of the geometry of the nozzle.
FLOW
MEASUREMENT BY
DRAG EFFECTS
The rotameter is a common device
used to measure flow, the flow
enters the bottom of the tapered
vertical tube and causes the bod or
“float” to move upward. The bob will
rise to a point in the tube such that
the drag forces are just by the
weight and buoyancy forces. The
position of the bob in the tube
indicates the flowrate.

The force balance on the bob

Drag Force
ROTAMETER

1.) Gas Rotameter

2.) Steam Rotameter

3.) Liquid Rotameter

FLOW MEASUREMENT BY DRAG EFFECTS
or
Mean flow velocity in the annular space between the bob and the tube

Quadratic area relation becomes nearly linear for actual dimensions

Mass flow
FLOW MEASUREMENT BY DRAG EFFECTS

Flow of a gas

&
To determine the mass flow of the rotameters under inlet conditions other
than 70°F and 1 atm, one must use a correction to both relation in the equation as well as a
conversion to mass flow from volume flow.
 TURBINE METER
Another popular flow measurement device is the
turbine meter, the fluid moves trough the meter and
it causes a rotation on the small wheel turbine. The
volumetric flow rate is proportional to the number of
wheel revolutions, the total pulse output indicates
total flow.

The flow coefficient is dependent on flow rate and

kinematic viscosity of the fluid ν.
TURBINE METER
LAMINAR FLOWMETER
A laminar flow meter its constructed of a
collection of small tube elements. If the tube is
sufficiently small it can maintain a laminar
flow. There are entrances and exits losses that
occur within the assembly of the tube. These
losses depend on the particular geometric
configuration of the tube assembly and the
installation in the pipe. Since the flow is
laminar we also know that Reynolds number
needs to be less than 2000.
Reynolds Number

Volumetric Flow Rate

Mass Flow Rate
 HOT-WIRE AND HOT-FILM ANEMOMETERS

The hot-wire anemometer is a device that is

used in research applications to study rapidly
varying flow. A fine wire is heated electrically
and placed in the flow stream this shows the
heat transfer. For measurements purposes
the hot wire is connected to a bridge circuit,
the current its determined by measuring the
voltage drop across the resistance. The flow
velocity may be determinate by current and
resistance.

Flow Velocity

Flow Velocity
HOT-WIRE ANEMOMETER
 HOT-WIRE AND HOT-FILM ANEMOMETERS

The hot wire probes also have been used for measurements of
transient flows, especially for turbulent fluctuations. There are two
types of electrical compensation in practice: A constant current
arrangement, where a large resistance is connected in series with
the hot wire and a thermal compensating circuit is then applied to
the output ac voltage, and a constant temperature arrangement,
where feedback control circuit is added to vary the current so that
the wire temperature remains nearly constant.
HOT-WIRE AND HOT-FILM
ANEMOMETERS
THERMAL MASS
FLOWMETERS
A Precision tube is
constructed with upstream
and downstream externally
wound resistance
temperature detectors.
Between the sensors is an
electric heater. The
temperature difference T1 –
T2 is directly proportional to
the mass flow of the gas and
it could also be detected with
the bridge circuit. The device
is to be use strictly with
gases.
THERMAL MASS FLOWMETERS
 TURBULENT In a turbulent flow the fluid velocity components
exhibit a random oscillatory character, which
MEASUREMENT depends on the average fluid velocity, density,
viscosity and fluctuations. The hot wire or hot
S film anemometers are very useful for turbulence
measurements due to it being having a very
high response rate when the velocity of the flow
changes, these operations can be performed
electronically.
 MAGNETIC
FLOWMETERS
There are two types of magnetic flowmeters, one of
them has a nonconducting pipeline and its used for
low conductive fluids, like water. The electrodes are
mounted to flush with the nonconducting line and
make contact with the fluid, magnetic fields are
alternated with theses meter because their output
is low and require amplifications. The second
magnetic flow meter is use with high conductivity
fluids, mainly metal liquids. The electrodes are
attached directly to the outside of the stainless-
steel pipe and diametrically opposed to each other,
the output for these type of magnetic flow meter is
high.

Electromagnetic Equation
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
Flow visualization
Methods FDJHMHJHJ
• Fluid Flow is a complicated subject
with many areas that may have not
yet yielded to precise analytical
techniques. Flow-Measurement
problems are not always simple and
precise because of the lack of
analytical relations to use for
calculation and reduction of
experimental data. Frequently, the
flow may be altered as a result of
probes that are inserted to measure
the pressure, velocity and
temperature.
Here you can see that through an angle ε as a
result of density gradients in the flow. It may be
shown that the deflection angle for small-density
gradients is given by the previous formula.
Where L is the width of the flow field, ρ is the
local fluid density, ρs is a reference density.
Shadow Graph
SSGSOSSH
• The shadow technique is a method for direct viewing of flow phenomena.
The net effect is that the rays will bunch together after leaving the test
section to form bright spots and dark spots. The illumination will depend
on the relative deflection of the light rays dε/dy, and hence on
d^2ρ/dy^2 . The shadowgraph is a very simple optical tool, and its effect
may be viewed in several everyday phenomena using only the naked eye
and local room lighting. The Free-convection boundary layer on a
horizontal electric hot plate is clearly visible when viewed from the edge.
This phenomenon is visible because of the density gradients that result
from the heating of the air near the hot surface.
Schlieren HHJSX
• While the shadowgraph gives an
indication of the second derivative of
density in the flow field, the schlieren
is a device which indicates the density
gradient. Here you can see that Light
from a slit source ab is collimated by
the lens L1 and focused at plane 1 in
the test section. After the light passes
through lens L2, an inverted image of
the source at the focal plane 2 is
produced. Lens L3 then focuses the
image of the test section on the
screen at plane 3.
INTERFEROMETER
• Mach–Zehnder interferometer is the most precise instrument
for flow visualization. The light source is collimated through
lens L1 onto the splitter plate S1.
• It permits half of the light to be transmitted to mirror M2 while
reflecting the other half toward mirror M1.
• Beam 1 passes through the test section, while beam 2 travels
an alternative path of approximately equal length.
• The beams are brought together again by means of splitter
plate S2 and eventually focused on the screen.
• If the two beams travel of different optical lengths (geometry
of the lengths of the system or refractive properties of any
element of the optical path), the two beams will be out of
phase and will interfere when they are joined together at S2.
• Bright and dark regions called fringes will be provided.
• The number of fringes will be a function of the difference in
optical path lengths for the two beams
• One fringe - for a difference in path lengths of one
wavelength
• Two fringes - for a difference of two wavelengths.
• If the density in the test section (i.e.,beam1) is different from that in beam 2,
there will be a change in the refractive properties of the fluid medium.
• If the medium in the test section has the same optical properties as the
medium in beam 2, there will be no fringe shifts except those resulting from
the geometric arrangement of the apparatus.
• The appearance of fringes on the screen may be directly related to changes
in density in the flow field within the test section by utilizing the following
analysis.
• L =L(n-n0)- the change in optical path in the test section resulting from
change in refractive index
• L is the thickness of the flow field in the test section.
• The change in optical path in the test section resulting from a change in
refractive index is

• where L is the thickness of the flow field in the test section. The change in
optical path may be related to change in density for gases by

• The number of fringe shifts N is then given by

• Where λ is the wavelength of the light

 LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER
• The laser anemometer is a device that offers the no
disturbance advantages of optical methods while affording
a very precise quantitative measurement of high-frequency
turbulence fluctuations. The laser beam is focused on a
small-volume element in the flow through lens L1. For it to
work, the flow must contain some type of small particles to
scatter the light, but the particle concentration required is
very small. (Tap Water) Two additional lenses L2 and L3 are
positioned to receive the laser beam that is transmitted
through the fluid (lens L3) and some portion of the beam
that is scattered through the angle θ (lens L2). The light
experiences a Doppler shift in frequency, which is directly
proportional to the flow velocity. The unshattered portion of
the beam is reduced in intensity by the neutral density filter
and recombined with the scattered beam through the beam
splitter. The laser-anemometer device must be constructed
so that the direct and scattered beams travel the same
optical path in order that an interference will be observed
at the photomultiplier tube, which is proportional to
frequency shift.
SMOKE METHODS
• Smoke is used to view the
complicated secondary flow
patterns in a channel through
which a forced flow is coupled
with a standing soundwave.
The method is primarily of
qualitative utility in that direct
measurements are difficult to
obtain except for certain
special phenomena.
• In order for the smoke filaments to represent streamlines of the flow it is
necessary that the individual smoke particles be of sufficiently small mass
so that they are carried along freely at the flow velocity. (Burning Rotten
wood or cigars smoke). Latter substance is corrosive to many materials
used for the construction of containers. One of the best fuels for
producing nontoxic, noncorrosive, dense smoke is a product called Type-
1964 Fog Juice.
PRESSURE PROBES

• A majority of fluid dynamic applications involve measuring the total flow

rate by one or more of the methods discussed in the previous sections.
These measurements ignore the local variations of velocity and pressure
in the flow channel and permit an indication of only the total flow through
a particular cross section. In applications involving external flow
situations, such as aircraft or wind-tunnel tests, an entirely different type
of measurement is required.
• The total pressure for isentropic stagnation of an ideal gas is given by
• where p0 is the stagnation pressure p∞ is the free-stream static pressure,
and M∞ is the free-stream Mach number given by

• a is the acoustic velocity and may be calculated with

IMPACT PRESSURE
IN SUPERSONIC
FLOW

• The following figure is exposed

to a free stream with
supersonic flow, M1 > 1. A
shock wave will be formed in
front of the probe, and the
total pressure measured by the
probe will not be the free-
stream total pressure before
the shock wave. The impact
pressure at the probe in terms
of the free-stream static
pressure and the free-stream
Mach number is expressed in
the following Equation:
• Where p∞ is the free-stream static
pressure and P02 is the measured
impact pressure behind a normal
shock wave. Equation valid for
Reynolds number based on a probe
diameter greater than 400 (Rayleigh
Supersonic Pitot formula). A
measurement of the free-stream
static pressure is needed to determine
the value of the Mach number.