Chapter I: Introduction

1.1.Nature & Definitions of

Research
Research is most frequently used term in
 academic institutions and
 research institutions,

It involves discovering and learning new

things (phenomenon),
It is enjoyable as well as taxing
experiences

Where does research carried out?

Only in Academic and research
institutes ?
1
 Definition of
Research
Research is commonly conducted,
In industry
People involved in marketing activities
(market research)
Government agencies for the betterment
of their service
 Social workers,

Schools; teachers conduct

research.
In general where there is a problem
there is always research. 2
 What is research (Cont…)
Research can be regarded as a systematic
methods consisting of
articulating problem,
formulating a hypothesis (if need be)
collecting data,
analyzing data and arriving at certain
conclusions
either in the form of,
solutions for the problem
or
certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation 3
 What is research (Cont…)
In most general term,
Research may mean a search for
knowledge.
But, it can mean different things to
different people
Some people consider research as a
movement from known to unknown
 Indeed it is a voyage of knowledge

For some it is an art of scientific

investigation to the state of nature or
phenomenon 1 4
 Definition of Research
Research is the application of human
intelligence in a systematic manner to
the problem whose solution is not
immediately available. (Herth, 1987)
Research is an activity comprises of
defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and
evaluating data; making deduction and
reaching at conclusion to determine
whether they fit the formulated
5
hypothesis (Woody 1985)
 Definition of Research
(Cont…)

According to Klopsteg1
'‘Research is original and creative
intellectual activity, carried out in the
laboratory, the library or in the field
which endeavors to discover new facts
and to apprise and interpret them
properly in the light of previous
knowledge.

6
 Approach to knowledge
Research involves discovering and
learning new things
How does people approach to
knowledge ?
People commonly uses different ways
or approaches to find solution to
many of their problems
Some of approaches are,
 Experience (personal experience),
 Authority,
 Observation,
 Reasoning ( logical method) 7
 Scientific Method

Moreover, there are different problems

that can not be solved without scientific
approach
Hence, People increasingly searching for,
 truth or
 knowledge

through systematic study or what is

commonly known as Scientific
methods.
What is scientific method ? 8
 Scientific Method
(Cont..)
Science: is an approach to
generate knowledge.
It relies on a mixture of
 Empiricism (i.e., data/evidence) and
 Rationalism (i.e., the use of reasoning

and theory construction and testing)

Science is in general a way of
generating knowledge and testing
the truth. 9
 Scientific Method
(Cont..)
Characteristics of Science
Science is the way of generating knowledge
based on objective observation
It deals with phenomenon that can be
observed by any one.
Science is self correcting because it is
empirical
This implies science is progressive
Working assumption of science
The main goal of science is,
to understand the world and/or to search for
cause of events
In doing so it makes the following
assumptions. 10
 Scientific Method
(Cont..)
Realism: The philosophy that perceived
object has an existence outside the mind
Rationality: A view that reasoning is the
basis for solving problem
Regularity: A belief that phenomenon exist
in recurring patterns that confirm to
universal low
Discoverability: The belief that it is possible
to find solution to question.
Determinism: The doctrine that all elements
happen because of proceeding causes. 11
 Scientific Method
(Cont..)

What is Scientific Method?

The philosophy common to all research

methodology and technique.

Thus,
Scientific methods should produce the
same result even when used by
different individuals.
12
 Scientific Method
(Cont..)
Steps in scientific method
The steps in scientific methods are
1. Observation: It is a minute and careful
observation of the subject matter of research.
2. Recording: It is a careful recording of all
information (data) obtained in the first step,
3. Classification: This implies systematically
arranging and organizing the recorded data on
the logical basis in order it will become viable
for further analysis.

13
 Scientific Method
(Cont..)
4. Generalization: It is an extension of
general laws and principles on the basis
of the pattern exhibited by the classified
material.
5. Verification: the scientific method does
not stop only at the formulation of
general law.
The validity of scientific principles can be
confirmed by examination.
14
 Methods Versus
Methodology
Some literature use this terms
interchangeably.
Research Methodology or Technique :
can be understood as all those approaches
and techniques that are used in conducting
a particular research
Techniques of observation,
Recording data,
Techniques of processing data and the like
In general,
It refers to the techniques, researchers use
15
 Methods versus Methodology
(Cont…)
Research methodology can be put into
three groups:
The first group include approaches or
techniques of data collection
The second group consists of those
statistical techniques used to established
relationship between variables
The third group consists of those
techniques involved in evaluating the
accuracy of the result obtained
16
 Methods versus Methodology
(Cont…)
Methods: is a way to systematically
solve the research problem.
Method referred as a science of
studying how research is done
scientifically.
The researcher not only need to know
how to develop certain indices or
how to calculate the mean, the mode, the
median or the standard deviation or chi-
square or
in general how to apply particular research
techniques, 17
 Methods versus Methodology
(Cont…)
but also he needs to know
 which of these methodology or
techniques, are relevant and
 what would they mean and indicate.
Researcher also needs to understand the
assumption underlining various techniques.
Generally speaking, we can say that
research methods have many
dimension and research methodology
constitute only a part of the research
methods
18
 Motivation of research
Research is not a trouble-free duty
What are the possible motives of
individuals?
Possible motives can be,
Desire to get degree with its
consequential benefit
Desire to get respect and promotion:
“Publish or perish” is a phrase
commonly used academic institutes.
19
 Motivation of research
(Cont…)
Desire to solve the unsolved problem.
Concern over a particular problem initiates a
research
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing
some creative work.
Doing some creative activity will give some
professional satisfaction to many individuals.
 And research will give this
opportunity.
Directive of government
Employment condition
20
 Common Objectives of
Research
Research can have the following
common objectives
To generate new knowledge,
principle and scientific law
To review and verify the validity of
the previous work.
To investigate some existing
situation or problem
 To explain new phenomenon
21
 Common objectives of research
(Cont…)

 To examine the cause of the

problem
 To examine the nature of the
problem
To provide solution to a problem
To construct or create a new
procedure and new system

22
 1.3. Types of Research
Research can be classified on the basis of
the following traits
I. On the basis of the outcome of the
research:
Whether the research tries to solve a
particular problem or makes a general
contribution to the knowledge, it can be
Fundamental research
Applied research
a) Fundamental Research:(Basic or Academic)
Such research is aimed at investigating or
search for new principles and laws.
23
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
It is mainly concerned with generalization and
formulation of a theory
this type of research also verifies the validity
of old established theories, principles and
laws.
In general, fundamental research is
concerned with the theoretical aspect of
science.
Example
Theory of economic determinism
Economies of externality
Darwin Theory of Evolution
Newton’s Law of Motion 24
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
b) Applied research
A research aimed at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society,
The outcome of such research would be used
 by a decision makers (individuals or groups)

While pure research discovers principles and

laws, applied research discovers their
application in solving some social, economical
or any other problems.
Example,
 The improvement of safety in the working place
 The reduction of wastage in the working places

25
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
Types of Applied Researches
i. Impact Analysis: - The major purpose of
Impact assessment is,
 to estimate the likely consequences
of a planned change.
It can be used for making choices
among alternative policies.
Areas assessed in social impact analysis.
Community service
 Impact on school enrolment,
 Impact on speed of policy response 26
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
Social conditions assessment
 impact on crime rate etc

Economic impact
 change in income level

Demographic consequences
 change in the mix of old and young people,
 population movement in or out of the area

Environment impact
Health outcomes
ii. Evaluation research: - This is commonly
used type of applied research
It addresses the question, did it work?
27
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
Evaluation research measures the
effectiveness of
 a program,
 a policy, or
 a way of doing something.

and it establishes value judgment

based on evidence.
Some example of evaluation research
questions are,
Did the new incentive scheme improve
workers job performance?
Did the environmental policy improved
the environmental problem of the city?28
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason
why a research is conducted) it can be-
a) Exploratory research/Preliminary
research
Such research is aimed at discovering,
identifying and formulating a research
problem and hypothesis
b) Descriptive Research
The main purpose of such research is
description of the state of nature or
affairs, as it exists at present.
Ex-post facto research is used for
29
descriptive research.
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
The researcher has no control over the
variables;
 he can only report what has happened
or what is happening
Example
What is the qualification of different
groups of employment?
Frequency of shopping
What is the absentee rate in a particular
office?
Preferences of people
30
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
Goals of Descriptive research
To provide an accurate profile of a
phenomenon
To describe a processes, mechanism or
relationship
To provide a verbal or numerical picture
about a phenomenon
To find information to stimulate new
explanations
To present basic background information on
a context
To create a set of categories or classify types
To document information that contradicts
prior beliefs about a subject 31
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
c). Analytic research
It goes beyond simple description of the
state of nature.
It will try to addresses the question “why”
things are the way they are.
It uses facts or information already
available, and analyzes them to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
Not only describe the characteristics,
but also explains why and how it happened
or is happening. 32
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
Example,
How can the country control the rate of
inflation?
How can we reduce the level of
unemployment?
How can we reduce the numbers of
complaints made by customers?
How can we expand the range of our
services?
How can we improve the delivery times
of our products?
33
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
Case studies
Case study is a type of analytical research
a researcher examine many features of a
very few elements in-depth over duration of
time.
Case can be,
 individual,
 group,
 organization,
 movement, events, or geographic units.

The data in case study are usually more

detailed, and extensive.
Mostly data involved are qualitative data34
about a few cases.
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
Tracer Study
It is a type of analytical research
It is aimed at investigating the
subsequent development of individuals
after a specified treatment or condition
Example,
A researcher may conduct a tracer
study of the former graduates of, say
the Faculty of Business and Economics
of AU to know if,
35
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
all of the graduates are employed
Whether there is a mismatch between
the training of graduates received and
the type of jobs they are handling
Whether there is a new environmental
trends that justify the need of change
To identify their image
d) Predictive research
Such research goes beyond explaining
why and how things happened. 36
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
It predicts (forecast) the possible
(probability of happening similar
situation in other places)
It tries to explain the probability of
happening similar thing in the future.
Example,
How would an increase in interest rate
affect our profit margin?
What type of packaging will improve the
sales of our products?
III. On the basis of the process of research:
That is, on the basis of data used in the
research process research can be 37
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
a) Qualitative research:
Such research is applicable for phenomenon
that cannot be expressed in terms of
quantity&.
Things related to quality and kind.
Research designed to find out,
 how people feel or
 what they think

about a particular subject or institution is an

example of such research.
b) Quantitative research
Quantitative research is concerned with
quantitative phenomenon. 38
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
But quantitative Research, is applicable for
phenomenon that can be expressed in term of
quantity and kind
IV. On the basis of the environment in
which the research is carried out
research can be
a) Field research
It is a research carried out in the field.
Such research is common in agricultural
science, history and archeology.
b) Laboratory research
It is a research carried out in the laboratory
These are commonly experimental research 39
Such researches are common in medical science, agriculture
 Types of Research
(Cont…)
c) Simulation research
Such research uses models to represent
the real world.
Simulation is common in physical
science, Economics and mathematics
V. On the basis of the time required to
complete the research, research can be
a) One - time research; It is a research limited
to a single time period
b) Longitudinal research : Such research is
also called on-going research.
It is a research carried out over several time
periods. 40
 1.5. Research Processes

The research processes consist of a

number of closely related activities which
are necessary to successfully carry out
research activities
These activities (steps) may overlap rather
than following a strictly prescribed
sequence.
The first step can determine the nature of
the last step to be undertaken.
These steps are not separate and distinct.
. 41
 Research Processes (Cont…)

Reporting
Developing
Generalization
Hypo.
Test Hypo
Dev. R. Design

Analyze the Design the

data methodology
Collect data
42
 Research Processes
(Cont…)
Identification and Formulating the research
problem
Extensive literature survey
Developing working hypothesis
Preparing the research design
Design the methodology (sample, method of
data collection)
Collecting data
Analysis of the data
Hypothesis testing
Generalization and interpretation
Reporting the result 43