WACHEMO UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electro-Mechanical Engineering

Material Science and Engineering

Compiled by Dagim Asegid (M.Sc. MEng.), Dec. 2023

Chapter Seven

Review of atomic theory of

matter
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

 According to the Particle Theory of Matter, all matter is made of tiny particles.

 These particles are either individual atoms or groups of atoms called molecules.

 There are two main parts to an atom. These are;

 Nucleus

 Electrons.
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

 The atom are made up of three sub atomic particles such as

 Proton

 Electron

 Neutron
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

 Proton

 Protons are found in the nucleus of the atom

 This is a tiny, dense region at the center of the atom.

 Protons have a positive electrical charge of one (+1) and a mass of 1 atomic mass
unit (amu), which is about 1.67×10−27 kilograms.

 Together with neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of an atom
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

Electron

 They are a type of fundamental particle called leptons, all leptons have an electric
charge of −1.

 The mass of an electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron, so
electrons contribute virtually nothing to the total mass of an atom.

 Electrons have an electric charge of −1 which is equal but opposite to the charge of a
proton, which is +1

 All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, so the positive and negative
charges "cancel out", making atoms electrically neutral.
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

Electron

Electrons are found outside the nucleus.

 Because opposite electric charges attract one another, negative electrons are
attracted to the positive nucleus.

This force of attraction keeps electrons constantly moving through the otherwise
empty space around the nucleus.
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

Neutron

 Unlike protons and electrons, which are electrically charged, neutrons have no
charge they are electrically neutral.

That's why the neutrons in the diagram above are labeled n0,The zero stands for
"zero charge".

 The mass of a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of a proton, which is 1
atomic mass unit (amu). (An atomic mass unit equals about 1.67×10−27 kilograms.)
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

 The number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom can be determined from a set of
simple rules.

 The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is equal to the atomic number (Z).

 The number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the number of protons.

 The mass number of the atom (M) is equal to the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.

 The number of neutrons is equal to the difference between the mass number of the
atom (M) and the atomic number (Z).
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom
 Chapter Seven
7.1. Revision on Atom

 Examples: Let's determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons carbon 12C;

 12C: 6 electrons, 6 protons, and 6 neutrons

 Calculate the number of electrons in the Cl- and Fe3+ ions.

 Uranium-235 is an important isotope used in nuclear fission reactions for nuclear power and
nuclear weapons. With an atomic number of 92 and atomic mass of 235, what are the
numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in a neutrally charged atom of uranium-235.

 92 protons, 143 neutrons, 92 electrons

 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

 The Rutherford model of atom

 The Bohr atom model

 Atomic bonding
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.1. The Rutherford model of atom

 Rutherford Atomic Model – The plum pudding model given by J. J. Thomson failed to
explain certain experimental results associated with the atomic structure of elements.

 Ernest Rutherford, a British scientist conducted an experiment and based on the observations
of this experiment, he explained the atomic structure of elements and proposed Rutherford’s
Atomic Model.
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.1. The Rutherford model of atom

 Rutherford conducted an experiment by bombarding a thin sheet of gold with α-particles and
then studied the trajectory of these particles after their interaction with the gold foil.
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.1. The Rutherford model of atom

 The observations made by Rutherford led him to conclude that:

 A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold sheet passed through the
sheet without any deflection, and hence most of the space in an atom is empty.

 Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very small angles, and hence the
positive charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed. The positive charge in an atom is
concentrated in a very small volume.
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.1. The Rutherford model of atom

 The observations made by Rutherford led him to conclude that:

 Very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a few α-particles had nearly 180o
angle of deflection. So the volume occupied by the positively charged particles in an atom is
very small as compared to the total volume of an atom.
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.1. The Rutherford model of atom

 Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the atomic structure
of elements. According to the Rutherford atomic model:

i. The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in an extremely small
volume. He called this region of the atom as a nucleus.

ii. Rutherford’s model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of
an atom. He also claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with
very high speed in circular paths. He named these circular paths as orbits.
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.1. The Rutherford model of atom

 Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the atomic structure
of elements. According to the Rutherford atomic model:

iii. Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of
positively charged particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.1. The Rutherford model of atom

 Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model

i. Rutherford model was not in accordance with Maxwell’s theory and could not explain the
stability of an atom.

ii. One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say anything about
the arrangement of electrons in an atom which made his theory incomplete.

 Even if this model has the above limitations, it forms the base for future developments in the
world of quantum mechanics.
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.2. The Bohr model of atom

 Bohr proposed that electrons do not radiate energy as they orbit the nucleus, but exist in states
of constant energy that he called stationary states.

 This means that the electrons orbit at fixed distances from the nucleus (see below).
 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.2. The Bohr model of atom

 The model is also referred to as the planetary model of the atom.

 According to the Bohr model, often referred to as a planetary model, the electrons encircle
the nucleus of the atom in specific allowable paths called orbits.

 When the electron is in one of these orbits, its energy is fixed.

 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.2. The Bohr model of atom

 The orbits that are further from the nucleus are all of successively greater energy than that of
the orbits closer to the nucleus.

 The electron is not allowed to occupy any of the spaces in between the orbits.

 An everyday analogy to the Bohr model is the rungs of a ladder.

 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.2. The Bohr model of atom

 The orbits that are further from the nucleus are all of successively greater energy than that of
the orbits closer to the nucleus.

 The electron is not allowed to occupy any of the spaces in between the orbits.

 An everyday analogy to the Bohr model is the rungs of a ladder.

 Chapter Seven
7.2. Revision on Atomic Theory of Matter

7.2.2. The Bohr model of atom

 The Bohr model postulates that electrons orbit the nucleus at fixed energy levels.

 Orbits further from the nucleus exist at higher energy levels.

 When electrons return to a lower energy level, they emit energy in the form of light.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

 Not all elements have enough electrons to fill their outermost shells, but an atom is at its most
stable when all of the electron positions in the outermost shell are filled.

 Because of these vacancies in the outermost shells, we see the formation of chemical bonds,
or interactions between two or more of the same or different elements that result in the
formation of molecules.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

 To achieve greater stability, atoms will tend to completely fill their outer shells and will bond
with other elements to accomplish this goal by;

 Sharing electrons

 Accepting electrons from another atom

 Donating electrons to another atom

 An element can donate, accept, or share electrons with other elements to fill its outer shell
and satisfy the octet rule.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

 The number of electrons in the outermost shell of a particular atom determines its reactivity,
or tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms.

 This outermost shell is known as the valence shell, and the electrons found in it are called
valence electrons.

 In general, atoms are most stable, least reactive, when their outermost electron shell is full.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

 The number of electrons in the outermost shell of a particular atom determines its reactivity,
or tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms.

 This outermost shell is known as the valence shell, and the electrons found in it are called
valence electrons.

 In general, atoms are most stable, least reactive, when their outermost electron shell is full.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

 Helium (He), neon (Ne), and argon (Ar), as group 18 elements, have outer electron shells that
are full or satisfy the octet rule. This makes them highly stable as single atoms. Because of
their non-reactivity, they are called the inert gases or noble gases.

 Hydrogen (H), lithium (Li), and sodium (Na), as group 1 elements, have just one electron in
their outermost shells. They are unstable as single atoms, but can become stable by losing or
sharing their one valence electron.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

 Fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), as group 17 elements, have seven electrons in their outermost
shells. They tend to achieve a stable octet by taking an electron from other atoms, becoming
negatively charged ions: F− and Cl−.

 Carbon (C), as a group 14 element, has four electrons in its outer shell. Carbon typically
shares electrons to achieve a complete valence shell, forming bonds with multiple other
atoms.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

 Ionic Bond

 Covalent Bond

 Metallic Bond
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bond

 As the name suggests, ionic bonds are a result of the attraction between ions.

 Ions are formed when an atom loses or gains an electron.

 These types of bonds are commonly formed between a metal and a nonmetal
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bond

 Sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) combine to form stable crystals of sodium chloride
(NaCl), also known as common salt.

 Magnesium (Mg) and oxygen (O) combine to form magnesium oxide (MgO).

 Calcium (Ca) and fluorine (F) combine to form calcium fluoride (CaF2)
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Covalent Bond

 In the case of a covalent bond, an atom shares one or more pairs of electrons with
another atom and forms a bond.

 This sharing of electrons happens because the atoms must satisfy the octet (noble
gas configuration) rule while bonding.

 Such a type of bonding is common between two nonmetals.

 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Covalent Bond

 In the case of a covalent bond, an atom shares one or more pairs of electrons with
another atom and forms a bond.

 This sharing of electrons happens because the atoms must satisfy the octet (noble
gas configuration) rule while bonding.

 Such a type of bonding is common between two nonmetals.

 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Covalent Bond

 The covalent bond is the strongest and most common form of chemical bond in living
organisms.

 A covalent bond can be divided into a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond.

 In the case of a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are equally shared between the two
atoms.

 On the contrary, in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are unequally distributed between
the atoms.
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Covalent Bond

 Two atoms of iodine (I) combine to form iodine (I2) gas.

 One atom of carbon (C) combines with two atoms of oxygen (O) to form a double
covalent bond in carbon dioxide (CO2).

 Two atoms of hydrogen (H) combine with one atom of oxygen (O) to form a polar
molecule of water (H2O).

 Boron (B) and three hydrogens (H) combine to form the polar borane (BH ).
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Metallic Bond

 A metallic bond is a force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance.

 Such solid consists of tightly packed atoms, where the outermost electron shell of
each metal atom overlaps with a large number of neighboring atoms.

 As a consequence, the valence electrons move freely from one atom to another.

 They are not associated with any specific pair of atoms. This behavior is called
non-localization
 Chapter Seven
7.3. Revision on Chemical Bonding

7.3.1. Types of Chemical Bonds

Metallic Bond

 Sodium metal

 Aluminum foil

 Copper wire
 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.1. What is electrical conductivity?

 Electrical conductivity is a measurement that determines a material's ability to transport an

electric charge.

 They let electrical currents easily pass through, making some materials perfect for electrical
wires and cables - these are called conductive materials.

 Metals are highly conductive materials, whereas non-metals has poor electrical conductivity.

 Materials that don't conduct electricity, non-conductive materials, are called insulators.
 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials
 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.2. Factors influencing resistively of conductor

 Resistance is that property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current through a
conductor. There are mainly four factors that affect the resistance of a conductor.
 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.2. Factors influencing resistively of conductor

 Resistance is that property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current through a conductor.
There are mainly four factors that affect the resistance of a conductor.

 Length of the conductor: Resistance is directly proportional to the length of a

conductor

 Area of cross-section of the conductor: Resistance is inversely proportional to area of

the conductor

 Nature of material: It depends on the nature of material used (resistivity)


 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.2. Factors influencing resistively of conductor

 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.3. Thermal conductivity of conductors

 Thermal conductivity is a measure of a materials ability to pass heat through it.

 Materials with a high thermal conductivity can effectively transfer heat and readily
take up heat from their environment.

 Poor thermal conductors resist heat flow and obtain heat slowly from their
surroundings.

 The thermal conductivity of a material is measured in Watts per meter per degree
Kelvin (W/m•K)
 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.3. Thermal conductivity of conductors

 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.3. Thermal conductivity of conductors

The above figure shows molecules in two bodies at different temperatures.

 The (average) kinetic energy of a molecule in the hot body is higher than in the
colder body.

 If two molecules collide, an energy transfer from the hot to the cold molecule
occurs.

 The cumulative effect from all collisions results in a net flux of heat from the hot
body to the colder body. This phenomenon is known as thermal conduction.
 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.4. Equation of thermal conduction

 There are four factors (k, A, ΔT, d) that affect the rate at which heat is conducted through a
material. This four factors can be related by the equation;
 Chapter Seven
7.4. Revision on Conducting Materials

7.4.4. Equation of thermal conduction

Where:

Q the amount of heat transferred in a time t

K the thermal conductivity constant for the material,

A the cross sectional area of the material transferring heat

 ΔT the difference in temperature between one side of the material and the other

d the thickness of the material

Chapter Seven

End Of Chapter Five

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