TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING-I

Lecture-1
Highway Development And
Planning

Civil Engineering Department

NGP Patna - 13
 Transportation engineering
• Transportation engineering is the
application of technology and
scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any
mode of transportation in order to
provide for the safe, efficient, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical,
and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods from
one place to other.
 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

• Basic mode of
transportation are
 Land
• Roadway
• railway
 Water
 Air
 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
• Highways
Car, Bus, Truck, non- motorized ..etc
• Railways
Passenger and Goods
• Airways
Aircraft and Helicopters
• Waterways
Ships, boats…
• Continuous Flow systems
Pipelines,belts,elevetor,ropeway…etc.
• Merits and Demerits: Based on accessibility, mobility, cost, tonnage..
Airways
• Fastest among all other modes
• More comfortable
• Time saving
• Uneconomical
Waterways
• slowest among all other modes
• It needs minimum energy to haul
unit load through unit distance.
• This can be possible between ports on
the sea routes or along the river
• economical
 Railways
• The transportation along the railways
track could be advantageous by
railways between the stations both for
the passengers and goods, particularly
for long distance.
• It depends upon the road transport i.e.
road could serve as a feeder system.
• Energy require to haul a unit load
through unit distance by the railway
is only ¼ to 1/5 of that required by
road.
 Highways
• It gives the maximum service to one and all
• It gives maximum flexibility for travel with
reference to route, direction, time and speed
of travel
• It provide door to door service
• Other modes are depend on it
• It requires small investment for the
government
• Motor vehicles are cheaper than other
carriers like rail locomotive and wagons
• It saves the time for short distance
• High degree of accident due to
 Scope of highway engineering

• Development, planning and

location
• Highway design, geometric and
structure
• Traffic performance and its control

• Materials, construction and

maintenance
 ROLE /IMPACT OF TRANSPORTATION

• Economic
Development

• Social Development

• Spatial Development

• Cultural
Development
 Characteristics of road
• transport
Roads are used by various types of road
vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks,
pedal cycle and animal drawn vehicle.
• It requires a relatively small investment
for the government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users
to transfer the vehicle from one lane to
another and from one road to another
according to need and convenience.
• Speed and movement is directly related
with the severity of accident.
• Road transport is the only means of
transport that offers itself to the whole
 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD
CONSTRUCTION
• Oldest mode
 Foot paths- animal ways, cart p a t h … … . .
• As civilization evolved the need for
transportation increased
ROMAN ROAD-(500 B.C.)
 They were built straight regardless of
gradient
 They were built after the soft soil was
removed and a hard stratum was reached.
 Thickness varies from 0.75 m to 1.2m
Roman Road
Construction
Basic cross section
 Modern Highway
Roman Roads
 Other oldest road
transport are

• Tresaguet
construction

• Metcalf construction

• Telford construction

• Mecadam
construction
 Indian
Roads
• India has a large road network of over
3.314 million kilometers of roadways (2.1
million miles), making it 3rd largest road
network in the world.

• At 0.66 km of highway per square

kilometer of land the density of India’s
highway network is higher than that of
the United States (0.65) and far higher
than that of China's (0.16) or Brazil's
(0.20).
 Highway Development in India
• Jayakar Committee (1927)
• Central Road Fund (1929)
• Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 1934
• Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), 1950
• Motor vehicle act (1936)
• National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),1995
• First twenty year road plan ( 1943-61 )
• Second twenty year road plan ( 1961-81 )
• Highway Research board ( 1973 )
• National Transport Policy committee ( 1978 )
• Third twenty year road plan ( 1981-2001 )
 Jayakar
• After theCommittee,1927
first World War, motor vehicle using
the roads increases, this demanded a better
road network.
• In 1927,Indian road development committee was
appointed by the government with M.R. Jaykar as
chairman.
• Road development in the country should be made
as a national interest since local govt. do not have
financial and technical capacity for road
development.
• An extra tax should be levied on petrol from road
users to
create the road development fund.
• To establish a semi-official ,technical institution
to pool technical knowledge, sharing of ideas
 Central road fund
• It was formed on 1st march 1929
• The consumers of petrol were charged an
extra leavy of 2.64 paisa per litre of
petrol to built up this road development
fund.
• From this 20% of annual reveneu is to be
retain as a central reveneu for research
and experimental work expenses..etc
• Balance 80% is allowed by central
govt. to various states based on
actual petrol consumption or
revenue collected.
 Central Road Fund ,
1929
CRF Act , 2000

Distribution of 100% cess on petrol as

 57.5% for follows:
MORTH
NH
 12.5%
 30% forfor
SHsafety works on rail-Road
crossing.

50% cess on diesel for Rural Road

development
 Indian Roads Congress, 1934
• Central semi official body known as IRC was
formed in 1934.
• To provide national forum for regular pooling of
experience and ideas on matters related to
construction and maintenance of highways.
• It is a active body controlling the
specification, standardization and
recommendations on materials, design of
roads and bridges.
• It publishes journals, research publications and
standard specifications guide lines.
• To provide a platform for expression of
professional
opinion on matters relating to roads and road
transport.
 Motor vehicle act

• It was formed in 1939

• To regulate the road traffic in the
form of traffic laws, ordinances
and regulations.
• Three phases primarily covered
are control of driver, vehicle
ownership and vehicle operation
• It was revised on 1988
Central road research institute(1950)
 engaged in carrying out research and
development projects.
 design, construction and maintenance of roads
and runways, traffic and transportation planning
of mega and medium cities, management of
roads in different terrains,
 Improvement of marginal materials.
 Utilization of industrial waste in road
construction.
 Landslide control.
 Ground improvements, environmental pollution.
 Road traffic safety.
 Ministry of Road Transport & Highways

• Planning, development and

maintenance of National Highways in
the country.
• Extends technical and financial support to
State Governments for the development
of state roads and the roads of inter-state
connectivity and economic importance.
• Evolves standard specifications for
roads and bridges in the country.
• It stores the data related to technical
knowledge on roads and bridges.
 Highway Research Board

• To ascertain the nature and

extent of research required
• To correlate research information
from various organisation in India
and abroad.
• To collect and correlation services.
• To collect result on research
• To channelise consultative services
 Classification of Highways
Depending on weather
 All weather roads
 Fair weather roads

Depending the type of Carriage way

 Paved roads(WBM)
 Unpaved roads(earth road or gravel road)

Depending upon the pavement surface

 Surfaced roads(bituminous or cement
concrete road)
 Un surfaced roads
 Classification of Highways
Based on the Traffic Volume
 Heavy
 Medium
 Light

Based on Load or Tonnage

Class 1 or Class 2 etc or Class A , B etc
Tonnes per day

Based on location and function ( Nagpur road plan )

 National highway (NH)
 State highway (SH)
 Major district road (MDR)
 Other district road (ODR)
 Village road (VR)
 Based on modified system of
Highways classification
• Primary
 Expressways
 National
Highways

• Secondary
 SH
 MDR

• Tertiary
 ODR
 VR
 Expressways
• Heavy traffic at high speed
(120km/hr)
• Land Width (90m)
• Full access control
• Connects major points of traffic
generation
• No slow moving traffic allowed
•No loading,
unloading, parking.
The Mumbai-Pune Expressway as
seen from Khandala
 National
• NH are the Highways
main highways running through the
length and breadth of India, connecting major
parts,foreign highways,capital of large states and
large industrial and tourist centres including roads
required for strategic movements for the defence
of India.
• The national highways have a total length of 70,548
kms. Indian highways cover 2% of the total road
network of India and carry 40% of the total traffic.
• The highway connecting Delhi-Ambala-Amritsar is
denoted as NH-1, whereas a bifurcation of this
highway beyond Jalandar to Srinagar and Uri is
denoted NH-1-A
• The longest highway in India is NH7 which stretches
from Varansi in Uttar Pradesh to Kanyakumari in
 National Highways
cont …
• The shortest highway is NH47A which
stretches from Ernakulam to Kochi and
covers total length of 4 Kms.
• Golden Quadrilateral – (5,846 Kms) connecting Delhi-
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai
 NH-2 Delhi- Kol (1453 km)
 NH 4,7&46 Che-Mum (1290km )
 NH5&6 Kol- Che (1684 m)
 NH 8 Del- Mum (1419 km)
 State Highways
• They are the arterial roads of a state,
connecting up with the national
highways of adjacent states, district
head quarters and important cities
within the state.

• Total length of all SH in the

country is 1,37,119 Kms.
• Speed 80 kmph
 Major District Roads

• Important roads with in a district

serving areas of production and
markets , connecting those with
each other or with the major
highways.

• India has a total of 4,70,000 kms

of MDR.
• Speed 60-80kmph
Other district roads
 serving rural areas of production and
providing them with outlet to market
centers or other important roads like MDR or
SH.
 Speed 50-60kmph
Village roads
• They are roads connecting villages or group
of villages with each other or to the nearest
road of a higher category like ODR or MDR.
• India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out
of the total 33,15,231 kms of all type of
roads.
 Urban Road Classification

• Arterial
Roads
• Sub Arterial
• Collector
• Local Street
• Cul-de-sac
• Pathway
• Driveway
 ARTERIAL

• No frontage access, no standing

vehicle, very little cross traffic.
• Design Speed : 80km/hr
• Land width : 50 – 60m
• Divided roads with full or partial
parking
• Pedestrian allowed to walk
only at intersection
 SUB ARTERIAL ROAD
• Bus stops but no standing
vehicle.
•• Less mobility
Spacing for than arterial.
: 0.5km
CBD : 60
• Design speed km/hr
• Land width : 30 – 40
m
 Collector Street
• Collects and distributes traffic
from local streets
• Provides access to arterial roads
• Located in residential,
business and industrial
areas.
• Full access allowed.
• Parking permitted.
• Design speed : 50km/hr
• Land Width : 20-30m
 Local Street

• Design Speed : 30km/hr.

• Land Width : 10 – 20m.
• Primary access to residence,
business or other abutting property
• Less volume of traffic at slow speed
• Unrestricted parking, pedestrian
movements. (with frontage access,
parked vehicle, bus stops and no
waiting restrictions)
 CUL–DE- SAC
• Dead End Street with only one
entry access for entry and
exit.
• Recommended in Residential
areas
 Driveway

• A driveway is a type of private road for

local access to one or a small group of
structures, and is owned and maintained
by an individual or group.
• Driveways are commonly used as
paths to private garages, fuel
stations, or houses
 Road Patterns

• Rectangular or Block
patterns
• Radial or Star block
pattern
• Radial or Star Circular
pattern
• Radial or Star grid pattern
• Hexagonal Pattern
• Minimum travel Pattern
 First 20-years road plan(1943-63)
• The conference of chief engineer held at
Nagpur in 1943 finalized the first 20-years
road development plan for India called
Nagpur road plan
• Road network was classified into five
categories.
• The responsibility of construction maintenance
of NH was assign to central govt.
• The target road length was 5,32,700 km at the
end of 1961.
• Density of about 16km of road length per 100
sq. km area would be available in the country
by the year 1963.
 First 20-years road plan cont…
• The formulae were based on star and
grid pattern of road network.
• An allowance of 15% is provided for
agricultural industrial development
during the next 20-years
• The length of railway track in the area
was also consider in deciding the
length of first category road. The
length or railway track is directly
subtracted from the estimated road
length of metalled roads.
 Second 20-years road plan(1961-81)
• It was initiated by the IRC and was
finalised in 1959 at the meeting of
chief engineers.
• It is known as the Bombay road plan.
• The target road length was almost
double that of Nagpur road plan i.e.
10,57,330 km.
• Density about 32 km per 100 sq. km.
and an outlay of 5200 crores
• Every town with population above
2000 in plans and above 1000 in semi
 Second 20-years road plan cont…
• the maximum distance from any place
in a semi develop area would be
12.8 km from metalled road and 4.8
from any road
• Expressways have also been considered
in this plan and 1600km of length has
been included in the proposed target
NH
• Length of railway track is considered
independent of road system
• 5% are to be provided for future
Third twenty years road plan (1981-2001)
• The future road development should be
based on the revised classification of roads
system i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary
• Develop the rural economy and small towns
with all essential features.
• Population over 500 should be connected by
all weather roads.
• Density increases to 82 km per 100 sq. km
• The NH network should be expanded to form
a square grids of 100 km sides so that no
part of the country is more than 50 km away
from the NH
 Third twenty years road plan cont…
• Expressway should be constructed along
major traffic corridors
• All towns and villages with population over
1500 should be connected by MDR and
villages with population 1000-1500 by ODR.
• Road should be built in less industrialized
areas to attract the growth of industries
• The existing roads should be improved by
rectifying the defects in the road geometry,
widening, riding quality and strengthening
the existing pavement to save vehicle
operation cost and thus to conserve energy
Highway alignment and
surveys
 Highway
• The positionalignment
or lay out of centre line of the
highway on the ground is called the
alignment.
• It includes straight path, horizontal
deviation and curves.
• Due to improper alignment , the
disadvantages are,
 Increase in construction
 Increase in maintenance cost
 Increase in vehicle operation cost
 Increase in accident cost
• Once the road is aligned and constructed,
it is not easy to change the alignment due
Requrements of highway alignment
 Short
 Easy
 Safe
 Economical

• Short- desirable to have a short alignment between

two terminal stations.
• Easy- easy to construct and maintain the road with
minimum problem also easy for operation of
vehicle.
• Safe- safe enough for construction and maintenance
from the view point of stability of natural hill slope,
embankment and cut slope also safe for traffic
operation.
 Factors controlling alignment
 Obligatory points
 Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
Other considerations
Additional care in hill
roads
 Stability
 Drainage
 Geometric standards
of hill roads
 Resisting length
 Factors controlling alignment cont...
Obligatory points
 Obligatory points through which alignment is
to pass
Examples:-bridge site, intermediate town , Mountain
pass e t c …
 Obligatory points throughwhich alignment
should not
pass.
Examples:-religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land

etc…

Traffic
• origin and destination survey should be carried
out in the area and the desire lines be drawn
 Geometric
design
• Design factors such as gradient ,radius of curve
and sight distance also govern the final
alignment of the highway.
• Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling
gradient or design gradient.
• Avoid sudden changes in sight distance,
especially near crossings
• Avoid sharp horizontal curves
• Avoid road intersections near bend
Economy
• Alignment finalised based on total cost including
initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation
cost.
Other consideration
• Drainage consideration, political consideration
• Surface water level, high flood level
•
 Topographical control
• points
The alignment, where possible should avoid
passing through
 Marshy and low lying land with poor drainage
 Flood prone areas
 Unstable hilly features

Materials and constructional features

 Deep cutting should be avoided
 Earth work is to be balanced; quantities for
filling and excavation
 Alignment should preferably be through better
soil area to minimize pavement thickness
 Location may be near sources of
embankment and pavement materials
stability
• A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding
• The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the
roads on hilly sides causes steepening of existing
slope and affect its stability.
Drainage
• Avoid the cross drainage structure
• The number of cross drainage structure should be
minimum.
Geometric standard of hilly road
• Gradient, curve and speed
• Sight distance, radius of curve
Resisting length
• The total work to be done to move the loads along
the route taking horizontal length, the actual
difference in level between two stations and the sum
Engineering Surveys for Highway locations
Before a highway alignment is finalised in highway
project, the engineering survey are to be carried out.
The various stages of engineering surveys are

 Map study (Provisional alignment

Identification)

 Reconnaissance survey

 Preliminary survey

 Final location and detailed surveys

 MAP STUDY
• From the map alternative routes can be
suggested in the office, if the topographic
map of that area is available.
• The probable alignment can be located on
the map from the fallowing details available
on the map.
Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake
Avoiding bend of river
If road has to cross a row of hills,
possibility of crossing through mountain
pass.
• Map study gives a rough guidance of the
routes to be further surveyed in the field
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
• To confirm features indicated on map.
• To examine the general character of the area in field
for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed
studies.
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field with very
simple instrument like abney level, tangent
clinometer, barometer etc…. To collect additional
details.
• Details to be collected from alternative routes
during this
survey are,
 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill,
permanent structure and other obstruction.
 Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius
RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
cont..
 Number and type of cross drainage structures.
 High Flood Level (HFL)
 Soil Characteristics.
 Geological features.
 source of construction materials- stone
quarries, water sources.
• Prepare a report on merits and demerits of different
alternative routs.
• As a result a few alternate alignments may be
chosen for further study based on practical
considerations observed at the site.
 Preliminary survey
Objective of preliminary survey are:
• To survey the various alternative alignments
proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all
the necessary physical information and detail of
topography, drainage and soil.
• To compare the different proposals in view
of the requirements of the good
alignment.
• To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and
other construction aspect and to workout the cost
of the alternate proposals.
Methods of preliminary survey:
a) Conventional approach-survey party carries out
surveys using the required field equipment, taking
 Preliminary survey
• cont…
Longitudinal and cross sectional
 Plain
profile. : 100 –
Terrain` 200m
 Rolling : 50m
Terrain : 30m

 Hilly Terrain
Drainage, Hydrological survey, soil survey,
• OtherTraffic
studiesand Material survey.
b) Modern rapid approach-
By Aerial survey taking the required aerial
photographs for obtaining the necessary
topographic and other maps including details of soil
and geology.
• Finalise best alignmentfrom all considerations
comparative analysis
the by of alternative
routes.
 Final location and detailed survey
• The alignment finalised at the design office after
the preliminary survey is to be first located on the
field by establishing the centre line.
Location survey:
• Transferring the alignment on to ground.
• This is done by transit theodolite.
• Major and minor control points are established on
the ground and centre pegs are driven, checking
the geometric design requirements.
• Centre line stacks are driven at suitable intervals,
say 50m interval in plane and rolling terrains and
20m in hilly terrain.
 Final location and detailed survey cont
..
Detailed survey:
• Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about
250m and at all drainage and under pass structure.
• Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be
workout from the level books.
• Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-
100m in Plane terrain, 50-75m in Rolling terrain, 50m
in built-up area, 20m in Hill terrain.
• Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
• CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be
determined for design of pavement.
• The data during detailed survey should be elaborate
and complete for preparing detailed plans, design and
estimates of project.
 Drawing and Report

 Key map
 Index map
 Preliminary survey plans
 Detailed plan and longitudinal section
 Detailed cross section
 Land acquisition plans
 Drawings of cross drainage and other
retaining structures
 Drawings of road intersections
 Land plans showing quarries etc
 New highway project
• Map study
• Reconnaissance survey
• Preliminary survey
• Location of final alignment
• Detailed survey
• Material survey
• Geometric and structural
design
• Earth work
• Pavement construction
• Construction controls
 Bibliography
• Khanna, S. K., & Justo, C. E. G.
Highway engineering. Nem Chand &
Bros.
• IRC Codes.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture -2
Highway Geometric Design

Civil Engineering Department

NGP Patna - 13
 Importance of geometric design
• The geometric design of a highway deals with the
dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway such as alignment, sight distance and
intersection.
• The main objective of highway design is to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic operation with maximum
safety at reasonable cost.
• Geometric design of highways deals with following
elements :
 Cross section elements
 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal alignment details
 Vertical alignment details
 Intersection elements
 Design Controls and criteria
• Design speed
• Topography
• Traffic factors
• Design hourly volume and capacity
•Environmental and other factors
Design speed
• In India different speed standards have been assigned
for different class of road
• Design speed may be modified depending upon the
terrain conditions.
 topograph
•y Classified based on the general slope of the country.
 Plane terrain- <10%
 Rolling terrain- 10-25%
 Mountainous terrain- 25-60%
 Steep terrain- >60%
Traffic factor
• Vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road
users.
• Different vehicle classes have different speed and
acceleration characteristics, different dimensions and
weight .
• Human factor includes the physical, mental and
psychological characteristics of driver and pedestrian.
Design hourly volume and capacity
• Traffic flow fluctuating with time
• Low value during off-peak hours to the highest
value during the peak hour.
• It is uneconomical to design the roadway for peak
traffic flow.
Environmental factors
 Aesthetics
 Landscaping
 Air pollution
 Noise pollution
 Pavement surface characteristics
Pavement surface depend on the type
of pavement which is decided based on
the,
• Availability of material
• Volume and composition of traffic
• Soil subgrade
• Climatic condition
• Construction facility
• Cost consideration
The important surface characteristics are:
 Friction
 Pavement unevenness
 Light reflecting characteristics
 Drainage of surface water
friction
• Skidding: when the path travelled along the road surface is
more than the circumferential movement of the wheels
due to their rotation.
• Slipping: when a wheel revolves more than the
corresponding longitudinal movement along the road.
Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance
• Types of pavement surface
• Roughness of pavement
• Condition of the pavement: wet or dry
• Type and condition of tyre
• Speed of the vehicle
• Brake efficiency
• Load and tyre pressure
• Temperature of tyre and pavement
Smooth and worn out tyres offer higher friction
factor on dry pavement but new tyre with good threds
gives higher friction factor on wet pavement

IRC recommended the longitudinal co-

efficient of friction varies 0.35 to 0.4 and
lateral co-efficient of friction of 0.15
Pavement unevenness
• Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than
uneven surface.
• It affects,
 Vehicle operation cost
 Comfort and safety
 Fuel consumption
 Wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts
• It is commonly measure by an equipment call “Bump
Integrator”
• Bump integrator is the cumulative measure of vertical
undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit
horizontal length.
• 250 cm/km for a speed of 100kmph and more than 350
cm/km considered very unsatisfactory even at speed of 50
kmph.
Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by

 In adequate compaction of the fill, subgrade

and pavement layers.
 Un-scientific construction practices including
the use of boulder stones and bricks as soiling
course over loose subgrade soil.
 Use of inferior pavement material.
 Improper surface and subsurface drainage.
 Improper construction machinery.
 Poor maintenance
Light reflecting characteristics
• Night visibility very much depends upon the light
reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface
• The glare caused by the reflection of head light is
high on wet pavement surface than on dry
pavement particularly in case of black top
pavement or flexible pavement.
• Light colored or white pavement or rigid
pavement surface give good visibility at night
particularly during the rain, and produces glare or
eye strain during bright sunlight.
 Highway cross section elements
• Carriageway • Side slope
• Shoulder • Kerb
• Roadway width • Guard rail
• Right of way • Side drain
• Building line • Other facilities
• Control line
• Median
• Camber/ cross slope
• Crown
Carriageway:
• It is the travel way which is used for movement of
vehicle, it takes the vehicular loading .
• It may be cement concrete road or bituminous
pavement.
• Width of carriageway is determined on the basis
of the width of the vehicle and the minimum side
clearance for safety.
• As per IRC specification, the maximum width of
vehicle is 2.44m,minimum clearance of 0.68 in
case of single lane and 1.02m in case of double
lane.
 WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY
SL. NO. Class of road Width of carriageway in ‘m’
1 Single lane 3.75
2 Two lane without raised kerbs 7.0
3 Two lane with raised kerbs 7.5
4 Intermediate lane 5.5
5 Multilane pavement 3.5/lane

WIDTH OF ROADWAY OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF ROADS

SL. No. Road classification Roadway wisth
Plane and rolling terrain Mountainous and steep
terrain
1 NH & SH
a) Single lane 12 6.25
b) two lane 12 6.25
2 MDR
a) Single lane 9 4.75
b) two lane 9 4.75
3 ODR
a) Single lane 7.5 4.75
b) two lane 9 4.75
4 Village roads-single lane 7.5 4
 Two lane two-way road

carriagewa
y
Shoulder:
• It is provided along the road edge to serve as an
emergency lane for vehicle.
• It act as a service lane for vehicles that have broken
down.
• The minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck
stationed at the side of the shoulder would have a
clearance of 1.85m from the pavement edge.
• IRC recommended the minimum shoulder width is
2.5 m
• It should have sufficient load bearing capacity even in
wet weather.
• The surface of the should be rougher than the traffic
lanes so that vehicles are discouraged to use the
shoulder as a regular traffic.
• The colour should be different from that of the
 shoulder

Cycle track

Footpath
 Treated
unTreate shoulder
d
shoulder
Width of the roadway or formation width:
• It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or
pavement including separators if any and the
shoulders.
Right of way:
• It is the total area of land acquired for the road
along its alignment.
• It depends on the importance of the road and
possible future development.
• It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the
cost of adjoining land invariably increases very
much , soon after the new highway is constructed.
Building lane:
• In order to reserve sufficient space for future
development of roads, It is desirable to control
the building activities on either side of the road
boundary, beyond the land width acquired for
the land.
Control lines:
• In addition to “building line”, it is desirable to
control the nature of building upto further “set
back distance” .
Traffic separators or median:
• The main function is to prevent head on collision
between the vehicle moving in opposite direction.
• Channelize traffic into streams at intersection.
• Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
• IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m
and may be reduce to 3 m where land is restricted.
• The minimum width of median in urban area is
1.2m.
4-lane divided carriage way or dual carriage way

Median/
separator
Cross slope or camber:
• It is the slope provided to the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off the rain water
from the road surface.
• To prevent the entry of surface water into the
subgrade soil through pavement.
• To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous
pavement layer.
• To remove the rain water from the pavement
surface as quick as possible and to allow the
pavement to get dry soon after the rain.
• It is expressed as a percentage or 1V:Nh.
• It depends on the pavement surface and amount
of rainfall.
Shape of the cross slope:
• Parabolic shape(fast moving vehicle)
• Straight line
• Combination of parabolic and straight line
Recommended values of camber for different types of road surface
Sl no. Type of road surface Range of camber in areas of rain
fall range

heavy light
1 Cement concrete and high type 1 in 50(2%) 1 in 60(1.7%)
bituminous pavement

2 Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40(2.5%) 1 in 50(2%)

3 Water bound macadam(WBM) and gravel I in 33(3%) 1 in 40(2.5%)
pavement

4 Earth 1 in 25(4%) 1 in 33(3%)

EXAMPLE-1
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major
district road of WBM pavement, 3.8 m wide,
and a state highway of bituminous concrete
pavement, 7.0 m wide are to be constructed.
What should be the height of the crown
with respect to the edges in these two cases
?
Too steep slope is not desirable because of the fallowing
reasons
• Uncomfortable side thrust and unequal wear of the tyres as
well as road surface.
• Problem of toppling over highly laden bullock cart and
truck.
• Tendency of most of vehicle travel along the centre line.
Kerb:
• It indicates the boundary between the pavement and
shoulder.
• It is desirable to provide kerbs in urban areas.
• It is of three types
1-Low or mountable kerb:
• It allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty.
• The height of the this type of shoulder kerb is about 10 cm
above the pavement edge with slope to help the vehicle climb
the kerb easily.
2-Semi-barrier kerb:
• It is provided on the periphery of a roadway where
the pedestrian traffic is high.
• Height of about 15 cm above the pavement edge
with a batter of 1:1 on the top 7.5 cm.
• It prevents parking the vehicle but during
emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with
some difficulty.
3-Barrier type kerb:
• It is provided in built-up area adjacent to the foot
paths with considerable pedestrian traffic.
• The height of the kerb is about 20 cm above the
pavement edge with a steep batter of
1V:0.25H.
kerb
 Guard rail

• It is provided at the edge of the shoulder

when the road is constructed on a fill exceeds
3 m.
• It is also provided on horizontal curve so as to
provide a better night visibility of the curves
under the head light of the vehicle.
Guard rail
 Road margins
Parking lane:
• These are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking
• As far as possible only parallel parking should be allowed
as it is safer for moving vehicle.
•It should have sufficient width say 3m
Lay bay:
• These are provided near the public conveniences with
guide map to enable driver to stop clear off the
carriageway.
• It has 3m width,30m length with 15m end tapers on both
sides.
Bus bays:
• These may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid
conflict with moving traffic.
• It is located atleast 75m away from the
intersection.
Frontage road:
• These are provided to give access to properties along an important
highway with control access to express way or free way
• It may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by separator.
Driveway:
• It connect the highway with commercial establishment like fuel stations,
service stations etc…
• It should be located away from the intersection.
Cycle track:
• It provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic on the road
is very high.
• A minimum width of 2m is provided for cycle track.
Footpath:
• These are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as well as
pedestrian traffic are heavy.
• To protect the pedestrian and decrease accident.
• Minimum width of 1.5m is provided.
Bus

bays
Frontage
road
c/s of highway in hilly area
c/s of road in built-up area
C/S of Flexible pavement

C/S of Rigid pavement

c/s of road in cutting
Guard rails
 Bibliography
• Khanna, S. K., & Justo, C. E. G. “Highway
engineering”. Nem Chand & Bros.
• IRC Codes.
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture -3
Sight Distance & Horizontal Alignment

Civil Engineering Department

NGP Patna - 13
 SIGHT DISTNCE
• Sight distance available from a point is the actual
distance along the road surface, which a driver
from a specified height above the carriageway
has visibility of stationary or moving objects. OR
• It is the length of road visible ahead to the
driver at any instance.
Types of sight distance
• Stopping or absolute minimum sight
distance(SSD)
• Safe overtaking or passing sight
distance (OSD)
• Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled
intersection.
• Intermediate sight distance
• Head light sight distance
Stopping sight distance:
• The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
should be of sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction.
Over taking sight distance:
• The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the
traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking
sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight distance.
Sight distance at intersection:
• Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection (particularly
unsignalised Intersection) has sufficient visibility to enable him to
take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with
another vehicle.
Intermediate sight distance:
• This is defined as twice the stopping sight
distance. When overtaking sight distance can not
be provided, intermediate sight distance is
provided to give limited overtaking opportunities
to fast vehicles.
Head light sight distance:
• This is the distance visible to a driver during night
driving under the illumination of the vehicle head
lights. This sight distance is critical at up-gradients
and at the ascending stretch of the valley curves.
 Stopping Sight Distance
• SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a
highway at any spot having sufficient length to
enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at
design speed, safely without collision with any other
obstruction.
It depends on:
• Feature of road ahead
• Height of driver’s eye above the road surface(1.2m)
• Height of the object above the road surface(0.15m)
 Criteria for measurement
•Height of driver’s eye above road surface
(H)
•Height of object above road surface(h)

H
h

IRC
• H = 1.2m
• h = 0.15m
Factors affecting the SSD
• Total reaction time of driver
• Speed of vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and tyre
• Gradient of road
Total reaction time of driver:
• It is the time taken from the instant the object
is visible to the driver to the instant the brake
is effectively applied, it divide into types
1. Perception time
2. Brake reaction time
Perception time:
• it is the time from the instant the object comes on
the line of sight of the driver to the instant he
realizes that the vehicle needs to be stopped.
Brake reaction time:
• The brake reaction also depends on several factor
including the skill of the driver, the type of the
problems and various other environment factor.
• Total reaction time of driver can be calculated by
“PIEV” theory
 “PIEV” Theory
Total reaction time of driver is split into four parts:
• P-perception
• I-intellection I-E

• E-Emotion
• V-Volition P V
perception
• It is the time required for the sensation received by the
eyes or ears to be transmitted to the brain through the
nervous system and spinal chord.
Intellection:
•It is the time required for understanding the situation.
Emotion:
• It is the time elapsed during emotional sensation and
disturbance such as fear, anger or any other emotional
feeling such as superstition etc, with reference to the
situation.
Volition:
• It is the time taken for the final action

Total reaction time of driver may be vary from 0.5 sec to 4

sec
 Analysis of SSD
• The stopping sight distance is the sum of
lag distance and the braking distance.
Lag distance:
• It is the distance, the vehicle traveled during the reaction
time
• If ‘V’ is the design speed in m/sec and ‘t’ is the total
reaction
lagtime of the=driver
distance in seconds, Lag distance=0.278 V.t meters
v.t metres.
Where “v” in m/sec Where “v” in Kmph,
t=2.5 sec T= time in sec=2.5 sec
Braking distance :
• It is the distance traveled by the vehicle after the
application of brake. For a level road this is
obtained by equating the work done in stopping
the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
• work done against friction force in stopping the
vehicle is F x l = f W l, where W is the total weight
of the vehicle.
• The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec
will be ½ m. v²
 Braking distance= v²/2gf

SSD=lag distance + braking distance

SSD=0.278V.t + v²/254f
Table 2.6: Coefficient of longitudinal friction
Speed, kmph 30 40 50 60 ˃80
Longitudinal
coefficient of 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
friction

• Two-way traffic single lane road: SSD=2*SSD

• In one-way traffic with single or more lane or two-
way traffic with more than single lane: Minimum
SSD= SSD
Example-1
• Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design
speed of 50kmph for(a) two-way traffic on two
lane road (b)two-way traffic on single lane road
Example-2
• Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid
a head on collision of two cars approaching from
opposite direction at 90 and 60kmph.coefficient
friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50%, in either
case
Example-3
• Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a
descending gradient of 2% for design speed of 80
kmph, assume other data as per IRC specification.
 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
• The minimum distance open to the vision of
the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake
slow vehicle ahead with safety against the
traffic of direction
opposite is the
known as overtaking sight minimum
passing sight
distance
distance.
(OSD) or the
• The overtaking sight distance or safe
OSD is the
distance measured along the centre of the
road which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m
above the road surface can see the top of
an object 1.2 m above the road surface.
Factors affecting the OSD
• speeds of
 overtaking vehicle
 overtaken vehicle
 the vehicle coming from opposite direction, if
any.
• Distance between the overtaking and
overtaken vehicles.
• Skill and reaction time of the driver
• Rate of acceleration of overtaking
vehicle
• Gradient of the road
 Analysis of OSD
• Fallow the Fig. 4.14, p-96 of highway engineering by S.K. Khanna
and C.E.G. Justo
• d1 is the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle
“A” during the reaction time t sec of the driver
from position A1 to A2.
• D2 is the distance traveled by the vehicle A from A2
to A3 during the actual overtaking operation, in
time T sec.
• D3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C
from C1 to C2 during the over taking operation of
A, i.e. T sec.
• B is the overtaken or slow moving vehicle.
 Cont…
• B is the overtaken or slow moving vehicle moving
with uniform speed Vb m/sec or Vb Kmph;
• C is a vehicle coming from opposite direction at
the design speed V m/sec or V kmph
• The distance traveled by the vehicle A during this
reaction time is d1 and is between
the positions A1 and A2. this distance will be
equal to Vb.t meter
• where t is the reaction time of the driver in
second= 2 sec.
 OSD = d1+ d2+ d3
OSD = 0.28 Vb. t +0.28Vb .T + 2s + 0.28 V.T

S = SPACING OF VEHICLES = (0.2 V b+ 6)

T= √ 4x3.6s / A = √ 14.4s /A

If the speed of the overtaken vehicle is not given

Vb=(V-16) kmph, where V= speed of overtaking vehicle in kmph

The minimum overtaking sight distance = d1+d2+d3 for

two-way traffic.
On divide highways and on roads with one way traffic
regulation, the overtaking distance = d1+d2 as no vehicle
is expected from the opposite direction.
 Overtaking Zones
• It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the
length of road visible ahead at every point is sufficient for
safe overtaking. This is seldom practicable and there
may be stretches where the safe overtaking distance can
not be provided. But the overtaking opportunity for
vehicles moving at design speed should be at for
given frequent intervals.These zones which
overtakingmeant
are are called overtaking zones.
• The minimum length of overtaking zone should be three
time the safe overtaking distance i.e., 3 (d1+d2) for one-
way roads and 3(d1+d2+d3) for two-way roads.
• Desirable length of overtaking zones is kept five times the
overtaking sight distance. i.e., 5(d1+d2) for one-way roads
and 5(d1+d2+d3) for two-way roads.
Example-1
The speed of the overtaking and overtaken
vehicle are 70 and 40 kmph, respectively on a
two way traffic road. If the accleration of
overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec²,
a) Calculate safe overtaking sight distance
b) Calculate the minimum and desirable length of overtaking
zone
c) Draw the neat-sketch of the overtaking zone and show the
position of the sign post.
Example-2
Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a
design speed of 96 kmph, assume all other data
suitable
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Horizonta
l curve
 Horizontal Curves
• A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to
provide change in direction to the central line of a
road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal
curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally
outwards through the centre of gravity of the
vehicle.
• P = W v²∕gR
• Where,
• P = centrifuge force, kg
• W = weight of the vehicle, kg
• R = radius of the circular curve, m
• v = speed of vehicle, m/sec
• g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec
 P=mv²/
gR
h
A B
W F

b
 Cont…..
• P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact factor.
The centrifuge ratio is thus equal to v²∕gR
• The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve has two effects
 Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer
wheels
 Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
Overturning effect
• The equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when
Ph = Wb/2, or when P/W = b/2h. This means that there is
danger of overturning when the centrifugal when the
centrifugal ratio P/W or v²/gR attains a values of b/2h.
Transverse skidding effect
• P = FA+ FB= f(RA+RB) =fW
• Since P = f W, the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal to
‘f ‘. In other words when the centrifugal ratio
attains a value equal to the coefficient of lateral
friction there is a danger of lateral skidding.
• Thus to avoid overturning and lateral skidding on
a horizontal curve, the centrifugal ratio should
always be less than b/2h and also ‘f’
• ‘f’ is less than b/2h.-The vehicle would skid and
not overturn
• b/2h is lower than ‘f’-The vehicle would overturn
on the outer side before skidding
 Superelevation
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal
force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle
to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the
pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge, thus providing a transverse slope
throughout the length of the horizontal curve,
this transverse inclination to the pavement
surface is known as Superelevation or cant or
banking.
• The Superelevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio
of the height of outer edge with respect to the
horizontal width.
 E=eB

B
 Superelevation
Rv

P (centrifugal
force)

W 1 ft e


W sin   f  W cos   WV 2

sin    WV 2
cos 
 gR 
Analysis of Superelevation
• The force acting on the vehicle while
moving on a circular curve of radius R
meters, at speed of v m/sec are
• The centrifugal force P = Wv²/gR acting
horizontal outwards through the centre of
gravity, CG
• The weight W of the vehicle acting
vertically downloads through the CG
• The frictional force developed between the
wheels and the pavement counteractions
transversely along the pavement surface
towards the centre
of the curve
 Superelevation cont…

 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f  W c o s   g R s in   c os 
  gR
OR ta n   f V 2 1  f ta n  Dividing Cos α on both sides
 gR

OR e f V 2
1  (1-fe)=1-0.15x.o7=0.99≈ 1
 gR
f e
OR R  V 2

gf
2
V
OR 
e  f e OR e f V 2
gR 127 R

V in m/Sec V in kmph
R in ‘m’ R in ‘m’
 Cont…
• e = rate of Superelevation = tan Ө
• f = design value of lateral friction coefficient =
0.15
• v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
• R = radius of the horizontal curve, mg =
acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec²
 Maximum Superelevation
• In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks
carrying less dense materials like straw or cotton, the
centre of gravity of the loaded vehicle will be relatively
high and it will not be safe for such vehicles to move on a
road with a high rate of Superelevation. Because of the
slow speed, the centrifugal force will be negligibly small
in the case of bullock carts. Hence to avoid the
danger of toppling of such loaded slow moving vehicles, it
is essential to limit the value of maximum allowable
Superelevation.
• Indian Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of
Superelevation in plan and rolling terrains and is snow
bound areas as 7.0 %.
• On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum
Superelevation upto
10% .
• On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it
 Minimum Superelevation
• From drainage consideration it is
necessary to have a minimum cross
to drain off the surface water. If the
calculated Superelevation is equal
to or less than the camber of the
road surface, then the minimum
Superelevation to
be provided on horizontal curve
may be limited to the camber of
the surface.
 Design ofSuperelevation
• Step-1: The Superelevation for 75 percent of design speed (v
m/sec/kmph) is calculated neglecting the friction.
2
e 
(0.75V )2 e  V
1 2 7 R 225 R
• Step-2: If the calculated value of ‘e’ is less than 7% or 0.07 the value
so obtained is provided. If the value of ‘e’ as step-1 exceeds 0.07 then
provides maximum Superelevation equal to 0.07 and proceed with step-
3 or 4.
• Step-3: Check the coefficient of friction of friction developed for the
maximum value of e =0.07 at the full value of design speed.
2
f  V  0 .0 7
127R
• If the value of f thus calculated is less than 0.15 the Superelevation of
0.07 is safe for the design speed. If not, calculate the restricted speed as
given in step -4.
 Cont….
• Step-4 The allowable speed (Va m/sec. or Va Kmph)
at The curve is calculated by considering the design
coefficient of lateral friction and the maximum
Superelevation.
• e+f=0.07+0.15=va²/127R
• If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher
than the design speed, then the design is adequate
and provides a Superelevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.
• If the allowable speed is less than the design
speed, the speed is limited to the allowed speed Va
kmph calculated above and Appropriate warning
sign and speed limit regulation sign are installed to
restrict and regulate the speed.
 Attainmentof superelevation

Split-up into two parts::

• Elimination of crown of the cambered section
•Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
Elimination of crown of the cambered section
1st Method: Outer edge rotated about the crown
 Attainment of superelevation
Disadvantages
• Small length of road – cross slope less
than camber
• Drainage problem in outer half

2nd Method: Crown shifted

outwards

Disadvantages
• Large negative superelevation on outer half
• Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle along
shifted crown
 Attainment of superelevation

Rotation of pavement to attain full

superelevation
1st Method: Rotation about the C/L (depressing the inner edge
and raising the outer edge each by half the total amount of
superelevation)
Advantages
• Earthwork is balanced
• Vertical profile of the C/L remains
unchanged
Disadvantages
• Drainage problem: depressing the inner
edge below the general level
 Attainment of superelevation

2nd Method: Rotation about the Inner edge (raising both the centre as
well as
outer edge – outer edge is raised by the total amount of
superelevation)

Advantages
• No drainage problem
Disadvantages
• Additional earth filling
• C/L of the pavement is also raised (vertical
alignment of the road is changed)
 Example-1
• The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design
speed is 50kmph and the design coefficient of lateral friction
is 0.15.
 Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop
 Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is
provided.
 Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and
outer wheels should be equal.

Example-2:
• A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal
curve of radius 480m. Design the rate of superelevation for
mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the
pavement be raised with respect to the centre line , if the
pavement is rotated with respect to the centre line.
Exapmle-3:
• Design the super elevation for a horizontal
highway curve of radius 500m and speed
100kmph
Example-4
• The design speed of highway is 80kmph. There
is horizontal curve of radius 200m on a certain
locality. Calculate the superelevation needed
to maintain this speed.
 Radius of Horizontal Curve

• The ruling minimum radius of the curve for ruling

design speed v m/sec. or V kmph is given by.

 V2
RRulling 127(e 
•
f )
According to the earlier specifications of the
IRC, the ruling minimum radius of the horizontal
curve was calculated from a speed value, 16
kmph higher than the design speed i,e., (V+16)
kmph.
 Example-1
• Calculate the values of ruling minimum and
absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve
of a national highway in plane terrain. Assume
ruling design speed and minimum design
speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.
 Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves
• On horizontal corves, especially when they are not of
very large radii, it is common to widen the pavement
slightly more than the normal width,
• Widening is needed for the following reasons :
 The driver experience difficulties in steering around the
curve.
 The vehicle occupies a greater width as the rear wheel
don’t track the front wheel. known as ‘Off tracking’
 For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not
to follow the central path of the lane, but to use the outer
side at the beginning of the curve.
 While two vehicle cross or overtake at horizontal curve
there is psychological tendency to maintain a greater
clearance between the vehicle for safety.
Off tracking
• An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only
the front wheels can be turned, when this
vehicle takes a turn to negotiate a horizontal
curve, the rear wheel do not follow the same
path as that of the front wheels. This
phenomenon is called off tracking.
• The required extra widening of the pavement at
the horizontal curves depends on the length of
the wheel base of the vehicle ‘l’, radius of the
curve ‘R’ and the psychological factors.
 Analysis of extra widening on curves
• It is divided into two parts;
Mechanical widening (Wm): the widening required to
account for the off tracking due to the rigidity of
wheel base is called mechanical widening
Psychological widening (Wps): extra width of the
pavement is also provided for psychological reasons
such as , to provide for greater maneuverability of
steering at high speed, to allow for the extra space
for overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater
clearance for crossing and overturning
vehicles on curve.
• Total widening W = Wps+ Wm
Mechanical Widening

Wm
Wm = R2 – R1
B R1
From Δ OAB,
OA2 = OB2 –
l R2
BA2 R12 = R22 –
l2 C
A O
(R2 – Wm)2 = R22
– l2
lW
2 = W 2 (2 R –
m = m
l / (2 2R2 –
Wmm
)
Wm = l2 / 2 R
Where, R = Mean radius of the curve
in m, n=no. of traffic lanes
R = Mean radius of the curve, m
l = Length of Wheel base of longest
vehicle , m ( l = 6.0 m or 6.1m for
commercial vehicles)
V= design speed, kmph
Psychological
Widening
V
W Ps
 9.5 R (Empirical
formula)
V = Design speed of the vehicle,
km/h R = Radius of the curve,
m

Total extra widening =

Mechanical widening
+Psychological Widening
R
W nl V
2

 Method of introducing extra widening
• With transition curve: increase the width at an
approximately uniform rate along the transition
curve - the extra width should be continued over
the full length of circular curve

• Without transition curves: provide two-third

widening on tangent and the remaining
one-third on the circular curve beyond the tangent
point
• With transition curve: Widening is generally
applied equally on both sides of the
carriageway
• Without transition curve: the entire widening
should be done on inner side
Method of introducing extra widening
Follow Fig- 4.27, p-123
Example-1
• Calculate the extra widening required for a
pavement of width 7m on a horizontal curve of
radius 250m if the longest wheel base of
vehicle expected on the road is 7.0 m. design
speed is 70 kmph.
Example-2
• Find the total width of two lane road on a
horizontal curve for a new National highway
to be aligned along a rolling terrain with a
ruling minimum radius having ruling design
speed of 80 kmph. Assume necessary data as
per IRC
 Horizontal transition curves
• When a non circular curve is introduce between a
straight and a circular curve has a varying radius
which decreases from infinity at the straight end
(tangent point) to the desired radius of the
circular curve at the other end (curve point) for
the gradual introduction of centrifugal force is
known as transition curve.

Circular curve

Straight curve
Objectives for providing transition curve
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the
tangent point and the beginning of the circular curve,
avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the
comfort of passengers.

 To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own
comfort and security

 To provide gradual introduction of super elevation

 To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.

 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.

 Type of transition curve
• spiral or clothoid
• cubic parabola Follow the Fig-4.29, p-126 of highway
Engineering by S.K. Khanna and C.E.G.
• Lemniscate Justo
• IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve
because it fulfills the requirement of an ideal
transition curve, that is;
rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is
consistent
Radius of the transition curve is infinity at the straight
edge and changes to R at the curve point (Ls
ᾳ1/R)and calculation and field implementation is very
easy.
 Length of transition curve
• Case-1:Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

0.0215V 3
LS
CR

80
C 0.5 < C < 0.8

 (75
• Where,
 V curve
 Ls= length of transition ) in ‘m’
 C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal accleration, m/
sec²
 R= Radius of the circular curve in ‘m’
case-2:Rate of introduction of super-elevation
• If the pavement is rotated about the center line.

Ls=EN/2=eN/2(W+We)

• If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge

Ls= EN= eN(W+We)

• Where W is the width of pavement

• We is the extra widening
• Rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N
case-3:By empirical formula
• According to IRC standards:
For plane and rolling terrain:
2.7V 2
LS
R

For mountainous and steep terrain:

2
LS  V
R
The design length of transition curve(Ls) will be the
highest value of case-1,2 and 3
Shift of the transition curve
Shift of the transition curve ‘S’

2
S  Ls
24R
Example-1
• Calculate the length of the transition curve and shift using
the following data;
 Design speed= 65 kmph
 Radius of circular curve= 220 m
 Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
 Pavement rotated about the centre line of the pavment
 Pavement width including extra widening= 7.5 m
Example-2
• A national highway passing through rolling terrain in
heavy rain fall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500 m.
Design the length of transition curve using the fallowing
data.
 Design speed of vehicle= 80 kmph
 Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150
 Pavement rotated about the inner edge of the pavment.
 Pavement width excluding extra widening= 7 m.
 Set-back distance on horizontal curve
Where there are sight
obstruction like buildings, cut
slope or trees on the inner sides
of the curves, either the SSD
obstruction should be removed
or the alignment should be
changed If init order
distance. is not to provide
possible
adequate sight
provideadequate
to sight m’
distance
the curves on existing
on roads,
regulatory sign should be
installed to control the traffic
suitably. Obstructi R
clearance distance or set- on
distance
back is the distance
required from the centre line of
a horizontal curve to an
obstruct
of the ofon the
the inner
curveside
to α
provide
adequate sight
distance
Case-I: if length of curve (Lc ) > sight distance(S)

 '
m '  R  (R  d ) c os
2

 ' 
180S

Where,
2 2  ( R 
d
M’ = set-back) distance
d = the distance between the centre line of the road and the
centre line of the inside lane in ‘m’
R = radius of the curve in ‘m’
α = angle subtended by the arc length ‘S’ at the centre
 Case-II: if length of curve (Lc ) < sight distance(S)

' S  LC 
m'  R  (R  d ) cos  Sin
'
2
 ' 
1 8 20 L C
2 2  (2R 
d )
Where ‘Lc’ is the length of curve and ‘S’ is the sight distance
 Example-1:
• There is a horizontal curve of radius 400 m and length 200
m on this highway. Compute the set-back distance required
from the centre line on the inner side of the curve so as to
provide for
 Stopping sight distance of 90 m
 Safe overtaking distance of 300 m
 Distance between the centre line of the road and the inner lane is 1.9
m.
Example-2:
• A state highway passing through a rolling terrain has a
horizontal curve of radius equal to the ruling minimum radius
for a ruling design speed of 80 kmph. calculate the set-back
distance required from the centre line on the inner side of the
curve so as to provide for minimum SSD and ISD.
 Curve resistance
The automobiles are steered by
turning the front wheels, but the
rear wheels do not turn. When a
vehicle driven by rear wheels move
on a horizontal curve, the direction
of rotation of rear and front wheels
are different and so there is some
losses in the tractive froce.

thus the loss of tractive force

due to turning of a vehicle on a
horizontal curve
, which is termed as curve
resistance will be equal to (T- T cos
 Bibliography
• Khanna, S. K., & Justo, C. E. G. “Highway
engineering”. Nem Chand & Bros.
• IRC Codes.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture-4
Vertical
Alignment

Civil Engineering Department

NGP Patna – 13
 Vertical alignment

The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre line

of the road.
The vertical alignment consist of grade and vertical curve and it
influence the vehicle speed, acceleration, sight distance and
comfort in vehicle movements at high speed.
 Gradie
• It is the rate of risent
or fall along the length of the
road with respect to the horizontal. It is
expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x
horizontal unit). Some times the gradient is also
expressed as a percentage i.e. n% (n in 100).
• Represented by:
+n % + 1 in X (+ve or
Ascending) or -n% -1 valley

in X (-ve or descending)

summit
 Typical Gradients
• (IRC)
Ruling Gradient
• Limiting Gradient
• Exceptional gradient
• Minimum Gradient
• Ruling gradient (design gradient):
• It is the maximum gradient within which the
designer attempts to design the vertical profile of
road, it depends on
 Type of terrain
 Length of grade
 Speed
 Pulling power of vehicles
 Presence of horizontal curves
 Mixed traffic
 Limiting
•Gradient:
Steeper than ruling gradient. In hilly roads,
it
may be frequently necessary to exceed
ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient, it
depends on
 Topography
 Cost in constructing the road

Exceptional Gradient:
• Exceptional gradient are very steeper
gradients given at unavoidable
situations. They should be limited for
short stretches not exceeding about 100
 critical length of the
• grade:
The maximum length of the ascending gradient
which a loaded truck can operate without undue
reduction in speed is called critical length of the
grade. A speed of 25 kmph is a reasonable value.
This value depends on the size, power, load, initial
speed.
Minimum gradient
• This is important only at locations where surface
drainage is important. Camber will take care of the
lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage
along the side drains require some slope for
smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient
is provided for drainage purpose and it depends on
the rain fall, type of soil and other site conditions.
• A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for
 Value of gradient as per IRC
Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional
gradient gradient
gradient
Plain and Rolling 3.3% 5% 6.70%
(1 in 30)

Mountainous terrain 5% 6% 7%
(1 in 20)

Steep terrain up to 5% 6% 7%
3000m (MSL) (1 in 20)

6% 7% 8%
Steep terrain ( >3000m) (1 in 16.7)
 SUMMIT CURVE
Length of summit curve(L) for SSD
• Case-1(L > SSD)
NS NS2
L or L

2
2H  2h 4.4

 2
• Case-2(L < SSD)

L
 2H  or L  2S 
4.4
N
2h 
2S  N 2
length of summit curve for OSD
• Case-1(L > OSD)
NS 2 NS 2
L  or L
8H  9.6
• Case-2(L < OSD)
8H
L  2S  or L
9.6 2S 
N
S=sight distance i.e. SSD, OSD or
N
ISD N= deviation angle
i.e. algebraic difference between
two grade
H=height of driver eye above the carriageway
i.e. 1.2 m h=height of driver eye above the
 VALLEY CURVE
Length of valley curve for comfort condition:
1
 3
 OR
2
 V 
 N  
  3.6 
L  2 1
NV

C 3 2




L
0.38

N= deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between two grade
C= rate of change of centrifugal acceleration may be taken as
0.6 m/sec³ V= speed of vehicle in kmph
 Length of valley curve for head light sight distance
• Case-1(L > SSD)

NS 2 OR
NS
L 2 L
2h1  2S tan  1.5 

• Case-2(L < SSD) 0.035S 

 2h1  2S tan L  2S
1.5 
L  2S OR

  N  N
0.035S

h1=height of head light above the carriesway
α= inclination of focused portion of the beam of light w.r.t horizontal or beam angle .
N= deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between
two grade. S=head light distance is equal to SSD
Example -1
• A vertical summit curve is formed at the
intersection of two gradient, +3% and -5%.
Design the length of summit curve to provide a
SSD for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume
any other data as per IRC.
Example-2
• A vertical summit curve is to be designed when
two grades, +1/50 and -1/80 meet on a
highway. The SSD and OSD required are 180
and 640 m respectively. But due to the site
conditions the length of the vertical curve has
to be restricted to a maximum value of 500 m
if possible. Calculate the length of the summit
curve needed to fulfil the requirements of SSD ,
Example-3
• A valley is formed by a descending grade of 1 in
25 meeting an ascending grade of 1 in 30.
design the length of valley curve to fulfill both
comfort condition and head light distance
requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph.
Assume allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration is 0.6 m/sec3
Example-4
• An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a
descending gradient of 1 in 120. a summit
curve is to be designed for a speed of 80
kmph so as to have an OSD of 470 m.
 Grade compensation
• At the horizontal curve ,due to the turning angle α of
the vehicle, the curve resistance develop is equal to
T(1-Cos α). When there is a horizontal curve in
addition to the gradient, there will be a increase in
resistance to fraction due to both gradient and curve.
It is necessary that in such cases the total resistance
due to grade and the curve should not exceeded the
resistance due to maximum value of the gradient
specified.
• Maximum value generally taken as ruling gradient
 Cont….
• Thus grade compensation can be defined as the
reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve
because of the additional tractive force required due
to curve resistance (T−Tcosα), which is intended to
offset the extra tractive force involved at the curve.
• IRC gave the following specification for the grade
compensation.
1. Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than 4%
because the loss of tractive force is negligible.
2. Grade compensation is (30+R)/R %, where ‘R’ is the radius of
the horizontal curve in meters.
3. The maximum grade compensation is limited to 75/R%.
 Example-1
• While aligning a hilly road with a ruling gradient
of 6%, a horizontal curve of radius 60 m is
encountered. Fond the compensated gradient at
the curve.
 Bibliography
• Khanna, S. K., & Justo, C. E. G. “Highway
engineering”. Nem Chand & Bros.
• IRC Codes.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture -5
Introduction To Pavement

Civil Engineering Department

NGP Patna -13
 PAVEMENT
• pavement is the durable surface material
laid down on an area intended to sustain
vehicular load or foot traffic, such as a road or
walkway.
• It is of two types
Flexible pavement or bituminous pavement
or black top pavement
Rigid pavement or cement concrete
pavement or white surface pavement
 COMPARISON OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT & RIGID PAVEMENT
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT
1. Have low flexural strength 1. Have more flexural strength
2. Load is transferred by grain to 2. No such phenomenon of grain
grain contact to grain load transfer exists
3. Surfacing cannot be laid directly 3. Surfacing can be directly laid
on the sub grade but a sub on
base is needed the sub grade
4. No thermal stresses are induced 4. Thermal stresses are induced
5. expansion joints are not needed 5. expansion joints are needed
6. Design life 10-15 years 6. Design life 20-30 years
7. Initial cost of construction is low 7. Initial cost of construction is
8. Maintenance cost is high high
9. Road can be used for traffic 8. Less maintenance cost
within 24 hours 9. Road cannot be used until 14
10. Damaged by Oils and Certain 10. days
No of curing
Damage by Oils and other
Chemicals chemicals
 Rigid
Pavemen
t
 Flexible
pavement Rigid
pavement
 Requirements of a pavement
• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load
stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade soil.
• Structurally strong to withstand all types of
stresses imposed upon it.
• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent
skidding of vehicles.
• Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users
even at high speed.
• Produce least noise from moving vehicles.
• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not
impaired by reducing visibility.
• Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well
protected.
• Long design life with low maintenance cost.
Distribution of pressure
 Types of flexible pavements
• Conventional layered flexible pavement
• Full - depth asphalt pavement
• Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
• Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with
high quality expensive materials are placed in the top
where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials
are placed in lower layers.
• Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing
bituminous layers directly on the soil sub-grade. This is
more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials
are not available.
• Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing
dense/open graded aggregate layers in between two
asphalt layers.
c/s of flexible pavement

c/s of rigid pavement

c/s of flexible pavement

Load is transferred by grain to grain contact

 Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-
proof the surface and to provide skid resistance and to seal the
surfacing against the ingress of water.
Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually
asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It provides proper
bonding between two layer of binder course.it is generally
applied on impervious surface.
Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous liquide
bituminous material over an existing porous or absorbent
pavement surface like WBM.
• Prime objective is to plug the capillary voids of the porous
surface and to bond the loose materials on the existing surface
like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides
bonding between two layers.
Prime
coat
Seal coat
 Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Surface course:
• Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic
loads and generally contains superior quality materials.
They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC).
• It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,
drainage, etc. Also it will prevent the entrance of
excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying
base, sub-base and sub-grade,
• It provide a smooth and skid- resistant riding surface,
• It must be water proof to protect the entire base and
sub-grade from the weakening effect of water.
 Typical layers of a flexible pavement
Binder course:
• This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure.
It's chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course.
• The binder course generally consists of aggregates having
less asphalt and doesn't require quality as high as the surface
course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder
course results in more economical design.
Base course:
• The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath
the surface of binder course and it provides additional load
distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may
be composed of crushed stone and other untreated or
stabilized materials.
 Typical layers of a flexible pavement
• Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of
material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve
drainage.
• It may WBM or WMM
• A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For
example, a pavement constructed over a high quality.
• Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural
soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers above.
It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is
overstressed.
• It should be compacted to the desirable density, near
the optimum moisture content.
 Types of Rigid Pavements

• Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),

• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement
(CRCP)
• Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
 Types of Rigid Pavements
• Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement: constructed with
closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or aggregate
interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints.
They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.
• Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement: reinforcements
do not improve the structural capacity significantly but
they can drastically increase the joint spacing to 10 to
30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer.
Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after
cracks.
• Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement: Complete
elimination of joints are achieved by reinforcement.
 Rigid
pavement

Transvers
e joint
Granular
materials
 Bibliography
• Khanna, S. K., & Justo, C. E. G. “Highway
engineering”. Nem Chand & Bros.
• IRC Codes.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture - 6
Design Of Flexible
Pavement IRC-37:2001

Civil Engineering Department

NGP Patna -13
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT
Types of
Pavements
Wheel Load
Distribution
Flexibl Rigi
• Jointed Plain Concrete
Pavement (JPCP)
LOAD
DISTRIBUTION
Components of Flexible
Pavement
 Function and Significance of Subgrade Properties

• Basement soil of road

bed.
• Important for
structural and
pavement life.
• Should not
deflect
excessively due
to dynamic
loading.
• May be in fill
or
 Flexible Pavement
Design
IRC (37-2001)
Basic Principles
• Vertical stress or strain on sub-grade

• Tensile stress or strain on surface

course
 Factors for design of
•
pavements
Design wheel load
 Static load on wheels
 Contact Pressure
 Load Repetition

• Subgrade soil
 Thickness of pavement required
 Stress- strain behavior under load
 Moisture variation
• Climatic factors:(rain fall)
• Pavement component materials
• Environment factors:(height of embankment
and its
detailed)
• Traffic Characteristics
•
Pavement Responses Under
Load
Axle
Load

Surface
 SUR SUR
Base/Subbase
 SUB
Subgrade Soil
 Axle
An axle isConfigurations
a central shaft for a rotating wheel
or gear

Single Axle With Single Tandem Axle

Wheel (Legal Axle Load (Legal Axle Load = 18t)
= 6t)

Single Axle With Dual Wheel

(Legal Axle Load = 10t)

Tridem Axle
(Legal Axle Load = 24t)
 Truck
Configuration

2 Axle Truck – 5 Axle Truck –

16t 40t

LCV

3 Axle Truck – 4 Axle Semi Articulated

24t – 34t
 Standard
Axle
Single axle with dual wheels
carrying a load of 80 kN (8
tonnes) is defined as standard
axle

80 kN

Standard Axle
 Evaluation Of Pavement
Component
• Sub-grade Layers
• To Receive Layers of Pavement
Materials Placed over it
• Plate Bearing Test
• CBR Test
• Triaxial Compression
Flexible Pavement Design Using
CBR Value Of Sub-grade
Soil
 California State Highways
Department Method
 Required data
 Design Traffic in terms of
cumulative number of standard

axles(CSA)
CBR value of subgarde
 Traffic
Data
 Initial data in terms of number of
commercial vehicles per day
(CVPD).

 Traffic growth rate during design

life in %
 Design life in number of years.

 Distribution of commercial vehicles

over the carriage way
Traffic – In Terms Of CSA
(8160 Kg) During
• Initial Traffic Design Life
 In terms of Cumulative Vehicles/day
 Based on 7 days 24 hours Classified Traffic
• Traffic Growth Rate

 7.5 % may be Assumed

 Design
Life
• National Highways – 15 Years
• Expressways and Urban Roads –
20 Years
• Other Category Roads – 10 – 15
Years
 Vehicle Damage Factor
(VDF) to Convert No. of Commercial
Multiplier
Vehicles of Different Axle Loads and
Axle Configurations to the Number of
Standard Axle Load Repetitions
indicate VDF Values

 Normally = (Axle Load/8.2)n

n=4-5
 INDICATIVE VDF VALUES
Initial Terrain
Traffic in
terms of Plain/Rolling Hilly
CV/PD

0 – 150 1.5 0.5

150 – 1500 3.5 1.5

> 1500 4.5 2.5

 Distribution Of
Traffic
Single Lane Roads:
 Total No. of Commercial Vehicles in both Directions
Two-lane Single Carriageway Roads:
 75% of total No. of Commercial Vehicles in both
Directions
Four-lane Single Carriageway Roads:
 40% of the total No. of Commercial Vehicles in
both
Directions
Dual Carriageway Roads:
 for two lane dual carriage way75% of the No. of
Commercial Vehicles in each Direction
For three lane-60%
For four lane-45%
Computation of Traffic for Use of Pavement
Thickness Design Chart
365 x A[(1+r)n – 1]
N = --------------------------- x D x F
r
N= Cumulative No. of standard axles to be catered design in
for the terms of msa
D = Lane distribution factor
A = Initial traffic, in the year of completion of construction, in terms
of
number of commercial vehicles per day
=p(1-r)˟
P=no. of commercial vehicle as per last count
X=no. of year between the last count and the year of completion
of construction
F = Vehicle Damage Factor
n = Design life in years
r = Annual growth rate of
 CBR Testing hin
Mac
Definition: e
It is the ratio of force per unit area
required to penetrate a soil mass
with standard circular piston at the
rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that
required for the corresponding
penetration of a standard material.
 Subgrad
• e
Soak the Specimen in Water for FOUR
days and CBR to be Determined.

• Use of Expansive Clays NOT to be Used

as Sub-grade

• Non-expansive Soil to be Preferred.

 Subgrad
e
• Subgrade to be Well Compacted to Utilize its Full
Strength

• Top 500 mm to be Compacted to 97% of MDD

(Modified Proctor).

• Material Should Have a Dry Density of 1.75

gm/cc.
Flexible pavement design chart (IRC) (for CSA<
10 msa)
Flexible Pavement Layers (IRC) (CSA< 10 msa)
Thickness & composition (mm)

Flexible Pavement Layers (IRC) (CSA< 10 msa)

Flexible pavement design chart (IRC)
Flexible pavement layers (IRC)
Flexible pavement layers (IRC)
 Sub-
base
• Material – Natural Sand, Moorum, Gravel,
Laterite, Kankar, Brick Metal, Crushed
Stone, Crushed Slag, Crushed Concrete

• GSB- Close Graded / Coarse Graded

• Parameters – Gradation, LL, PI, CBR

• Stability and Drainage Requirements

 Sub-
base
• Min. CBR 20 % - Traffic up-to 2 msa
• Min. CBR 30 %- Traffic > 2 msa
• If GSB is Costly, Adopt WBM, WMM
• Min. Thickness – 150 mm - <10 msa
• Min. Thickness – 200 mm - >10 msa
 Sub-
• Min. CBR –base
2%
• If CBR < 2% - Pavement Thickness for
2 % CBR + Capping layer of 150 mm
with Min. CBR 10% (in addition to the
Sub-Base)
• In case of Stage Construction –
Thickness of GSB for Full Design Life
 Base
Course
• Unbound Granular Bases –
WBM / WMM or any other
Granular Construction
• Min. Thickness – 225 mm – <
2 msa
• Min. Thickness – 250 mm - >
2 msa
• WBM – Min. 300 mm ( 4 layers –
75mm each)
Example-
• Design the pavement for
1
construction of a new bypass with
the fallowing data:

 Two lane single carriage way

 Initial traffic in a year of completion of construction
work (sum of both directions) = 400 CVPD
 Traffic growth rate per annum = 7.5 percent
 Design life = 15 years
 Vehicle damage factor = 2.5

(standard axles per commercial vehicle)

 Design CBR value of sub-grade soil = 4 %
 Example-
•2
Design the flexible pavement For
Widening An Existing 2-lane NH-5 To
4-lane Divided Road
 4-lane divided carriageway
 Initial traffic in a year of commencement of construction work (sum of
both directions) = 5600CVPD
 Completion of construction work=2.5 years
 Design life= 10/15yrs
 Design CBR of sub-grade soil =5%
 Traffic growth rate = 8 %
 Vehicle damage factor = 4.5 (Found out from axle road survey axles per
CV on existing road)
 Design of rigid
pavement as per
IRC-58:2002
• Stress acting on the rigid
pavement are:
• Wheel load stress
Interior loading

Edge loading

Corner loading

• Temperature stress
Warping stress
Radius of relative
stiffness:
1

 Eh 3  4
l 
 2 
  12k 1   

• Where
• l= Radius of relative stiffness
• E= modulus of elasticity of cement concrete ,
kg/cm²
• µ= poisson’s ratio for concrete= 0.15
• h= slab thickness, cm
• K= modulus of subgrade reaction, kg/cm³
 Westergaard’s stress equation for
wheel load
• Stress at the interior(si)
0.316 P  
si  4 lo g10  b
l 
 1.069
h 2    
• Stress at the edge
(se)
s e  0.572 P  4 lo g 10  l  

2  b
   0.359 
h
• Stress at the corner
(sc) 0.6
3P   a 2  
s c  2 1   l
h    
 Where
• P= design wheel load, kg
,
• l= Radius of relative stiffness
• E= modulus of elasticity of cement
concrete , kg/cm²
• µ= poisson’s ratio for concrete= 0.15
• h= slab thickness, cm
• K= modulus of subgrade reaction,
kg/cm³
• b= radius of equivalent distribution of
pressure, cm
 b=a , if a/h ≥ 1.724
 b= √(1.6 a²+h²) - 0.675 h, when a/h <
1.724
 Modified Westergaard’s stress
equation for wheel
load
• Modified by
‘Teller’ l 
 
0.572P    log b  0.4048
se  1 0.54  4 10  b  10 
h 2    
log
• Modified by
‘Kelley’
1.2

3P   a 2 
s c  2 1   l 
h   

 Warping stress(given by
•‘Bradbury’)
Stress at the
interior(sti) E et  c x   c y 
st i  2 
 2  1  
• Stress at the edge
(ste)
st e  C x Or st e  C y

Eet Eet
Whichever is higher
2 2
• Stress at the corner
(stc)
E et a
stc 
31  
 Where
• E= modulus of elasticity of cement
,
concrete , kg/cm²
• e= thermal coefficient of concrete per
ºC
• t= temperature difference between the
top and bottom of the slab in degree C
• µ= poisson’s ratio for concrete= 0.15
• Cx = Bradbury coefficient based on L/l in
desire direction (IRC-58:2002)
• Cy = Bradbury coefficient based on B/l
in right angle to the desire direction
(IRC-58:2002)
• L = length of slab, m
 Frictional
• Frictionalstress
stress(sf)

sf 
210
• Where, WLf
4

• sf = unit stress developed in CC pavement,

kg/cm²
• W= unit wt. of concrete, (about 2400
kg/cm²)
• L= length of slab, m
• B= width of slab, m
 Example-
• 1Calculate the stress at interior, edge and
corner regions of a cement concrete
pavement using westergaard’s equation.
Use the fallowing data
 Wheel load, P=5100kg
 Modulus of elasticity of concrete, E=3.0x10ᶺ5
kg/cm²
 Pavement thickness, h=18cm
 Poisson’s ratio=0.15
 Modulus of subgrade reaction=6.0 kg/cm3
 Radius of contact area=15 cm

Example-2
• Compute the radius of relative stiffness of
15 cm thick cement concrete slab from the
fallowing data
 Example-
3
• Determine the warping stress at interior,
edge and corner regions in a 25 cm thick
cement concrete pavement with transverse
joint at 9 m interval and longitudinal joint
at 3.6 m intervals. The modulus of
subgrade reaction is 6.9 kg/cm² . Assume
temperature difference for day condition to
be 0.6ºc per cm of the slab thickness.
Assume radius of loded area as 15 cm for
computing warping stress at the corner.
• E= 3 x 10ᶺ5 kg/cm²
• e= 10 x 10ᶺ -6 per ºc
• µ= 0.15
 Example-
• A CC pavement slab thickness 20cm is constructed
4over a granular subbase having modulus of
subgrade reaction 15 kg/cm². the maximum
temperature difference between the top and bottom
of the slab during summer day and night is found to
be 18ºc. The spacing between the transverse
contraction joint is 4.5 m and that between the
longitudinal joint is 3.5 m. the design wheel load is
5100 kg, radius of contact area is 15 cm. the
coefficient of thermal expansion of CC IS 10x10ᶺ-6
per ºc and friction coefficient is 1.5.calculate the
warping stress at edge,interior ,corner and also
calculate the friction stress.
• E= 3x10ᶺ5 kg/ cm²
• µ=0.15
 Bibliography
• Khanna, S. K., & Justo, C. E. G.
“Highway engineering”. Nem Chand &
Bros.
• IRC Codes.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture-7
Traffic Engineering

Civil Engineering Department

NGP Patna -13
 Traffic Engineering
• It is the science of measuring traffic and travel, the study of
the basic laws relating to traffic flow and generation and
application of this knowledge to the professional practice of
planning, designing and operating traffic systems to achieve
safe and efficient movement of persons and goods.
• Objective of traffic engineering:
 Achieve efficient ‘free and rapid’ flow of traffic
 Reduce the no. of accidents.
• Various phases of traffic engineering are: (3Es)
 Engineering (constructive i.e. geometric design of road)
 Enforcement (traffic laws, regulation and control)
 Education (publicity and through school and television)
 Scope of traffic engg.
• Traffic characteristics:-improvement of traffic
facilities( vehicle , human[road user])
• Traffic studies and analysis
• Traffic operation-control and regulation:- laws
of speed limit, installation of traffic control
device
• Planning and analysis
• Geometric design:-Horizontal and vertical
curve design
• Administration and management:-
‘3E’concept
 Traffic characteristics
• Road user characteristics
 Physical
 Mental
 Psychological
 Environmental
• Vehicular characteristics
 Vehicle dimension
 Weight of loaded vehicle
 Power of vehicle
 Speed of vehicle
 Braking characteristics
 Traffic studies
• Traffic studies are carried out to analyse the traffic
characteristics. These studies helps in deciding the
geometric design features traffic control for save and
efficient traffic movement.
• The various traffic survey studies generally carried
out are:
 Traffic volume study
 Speed study
 Spot speed study
 Speed and delay study
 Origin and destination study
 Traffic flow characteristics
 Traffic capacity study
 Parking study
 Traffic volume
study
• It is the number of vehicles crossing a section of
road per unit time at any selected period.
• It is used as a quantity measure of flow: the
commonly units are vehicles/day or vehicles/hour
• The objects and the used of traffic volume study
are:
 It is generally accepted as a true measure of the
relative importance of roads and in deciding
the priority for improvement and expansion.
 It is used in planning, traffic operation and control of
existing facilities and also for planning the new
facilities.
 Cont..
• It is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends.
• Useful in structural design of pavement
• Used in planning one-way streets and other
regulatory measure.
• Turning movement study used in the design of
intersections, in planning signal timings,
channelization and control devices.
• Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for
planning side walk, cross walks, subway and
pedestrian signals.
 Counting of traffic volume
• Mechanical count
 These may be fixed type or portable type, it is
automatically record the total number of vehicle
crossing a section of the road in a desired period.
 Other methods of working the mechanical detectors
are by videos, radar detector.
 Advantage is that it can work throughout the day and
night for the desired period.
• Manual count
 It is possible to obtain data which can not be
collected by mechanical counter such as vehicle
classification, turning movement.
 Presentation of traffic volume data
• Average annual flow: (veh/year)
• Annual average daily traffic(AADT or ADT): Average daily traffic
(ADT) represents the total traffic for a year divided by 365, or
the average traffic volume per day.(veh/day)
• Hourly average traffic: (veh/hr)
• Thirtieth highest hourly volume or the design hourly volume is
found from the plot between hourly volume and the number
of hours in a year that the traffic volume is exceeded. The 30th
highest hourly volume is the hourly volume that will be
exceeded only 29 times in a year and all other hourly volumes
of the years will be less than this volume. The 30th highest
traffic volume is found to be satisfactory from both facility and
economic considerations.
 SPEED STUDY
• Spot speed:- it is the instantaneous speed of a
vehicle at a specified location.
• Average speed:- it is the average of spot speed of
all vehicles passing at given points on the
highway.
• Space mean speed:- (harmonic mean)Average
speed of vehicles in a certain road length at a
given instant.
Where, V  nL
n s n
 t
Vs  n Vs= space mean speed i

1 n= no. of vehicles
i 1

i 1 V i
V= speed of the vehicle
Time mean speed:-(arithmetic mean)
• Mean speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of
time or It is the average of instantaneous speeds of
observed vehicles at the spot.
n Where,
 V i Vt= time mean speed
V  i  1 n= no. of vehicles
t
n V= speed of the vehicle
• Running speed:- it is the average speed maintained by a
vehicle over a particular stretch of road, while the vehicle
is in motion ; this is obtained by dividing the distance
covered by the time during which the vehicle is actually in
motion.
• Journey speedor travel speed:- it is the effective speed
with which a vehicle traverse a particulars route between
two terminals, it includes delay and stoppages.
 Types of speed study
1. Spot speed study
2.Speed and delay study
Use of spot speed study
• To use in planning traffic control and in traffic
regulation.
• To use in geometric design for redesigning the
existing highway.
• To use in accident studies.
• To study the traffic capacity.
 Speed and delay study
• The speed and delay studies give the running speeds,
overall speeds, fluctuations in speeds and the delay
between two stations of a road.
• It gives the information such as the amount, location,
duration and cause of delay in the traffic stream.
• The result of the spot and delay studies are useful
in detecting the spot of congestion.
• The delay or time lost traffic during the travel period may
be either due to fixed delays or operational delays.
• Fixed delay occurs primarily at intersections due to traffic
signals and at level crossings.
• Operational delays are caused by the interference of traffic
movement, such as turning vehicles, parking vehicles,
pedestrians ..etc.
 Presentation of spot speed data
• A graph is plotted with the average value of each speed
group on X-axis and the cumulative percent of vehicles
travelled at or below the different speeds on Y-axis. From
the graph(i.e. Cumulative frequency distribution curve)
followings can be obtained.
 98th percentile speed-Design speed
 85th percentile speed-Maximum speed
 50th percentile speed-Median speed
 15th percentile speed-Minimum speed
• Modal average speed(frequency distribution
curve):
 A frequency curve of spot speed is plotted with average value of
each speed group of vehicle in X-axis and the percentage of vehicle
in that group on the Y-axis.
 The speed corresponding to peak value of curve is denoted as
modal speed
 Methods of speed and delay study

• Floating car or riding check method

• License plate or vehicle number method
• Interview method
• Elevated observations
• Photographic technique
 Floating car or riding check method
• In the floating car method a test vehicle is driven over a given
course of travel at approximately the average speed of the stream, thus
trying to float with the traffic stream. A number of test runs are made
along the study stretch and a group of observers record the various
details. One observer is seated in the floating car with two stop
watches. One of the stop watch is used to record the time at various
control point like intersections, bridges or any other fixed points in each
trip.
• The other stop watch is used to find the duration of the individual delays.
The time, location and cause of these delays are recorded by the second
observer.
• the number of vehicle overtaking the test vehicle and the overtaken
by the test vehicle are noted in each trip by third observer.
• The no. of vehicles travelling in the opposite direction in each trip is
noted by fourth observer.
• In this method the detailed information is obtained concerning all phases
of speed and delay including location, duration and causes of delay.
 Floating car or riding check method
 ny na ny
t  tw  q  t  t
q a w

where,
t⁻= average journey time in minute
q= flow of vehicle(average volume) in one direction of the stream
na = average number of vehicles counted in the direction of the
Stream when the test vehicle travels in the opposite directions
ny= the average no. of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus
the no. of vehicles overtaken when the test is in the direction of
‘q’
Tw= average journey time, in minute when the test vehicle is
travelling with the stream ‘q’
Ta= average journey time, in minute when test vehicle is running
Example-1
The consolidated data collected from speed and delay studies by
floating car method on a stretch of urban road of length 3.5 km,
running North- South are given below. Determine the average values
of volume, journey speed and running speed of the traffic stream
along either direction.
Tri Direction Journey Total No. of No. of No. of vehicles
p of trip time stop vehicles vehicle from opposite
No. Min- Sec delay overtaking overtake direction
Min- Sec n
1 N-S 6-32 1-40 4 7 268
2 S-N 7-14 1-50 5 3 186
3 N-S 6-50 1-30 5 3 280
4 S-N 7-40 2-00 2 1 200
5 N-S 6-10 1-10 3 5 250
6 S-N 8-00 2-22 2 2 170
7 N-S 6-28 1-40 2 5 290
8 S-N 7-30 1-40 3 2 160
solution
direction Journey time stopped Number of vehicle
Min- Sec delay
Min-
Sec overtaking overtaken In opposite
direction

N-S 6-32 1-40 4 7 268

6-50 1-30 5 3 280
6-10 1-10 3 5 250
6-28 1-40 2 5 290
TOTAL
Mean
S-N 7-14 1-50 5 3 186
7-40 2-00 2 1 200
8-00 2-22 2 2 170
7-30 1-40 3 2 160
TOTAL
Mean
 Origin and destination studies
• The object of this study is
 Plan the road network and other facilities for vehicular traffic
 Plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for the
trip demand of commuters.
• It gives the information like the actual direction of travel,
selection of routes and length of trip.
• Used in planning new highway facilities and in improving
some of the existing system.
• To plan the transportation system and mass transit facilities
in cities including route and schedules of operation
• To locate expressway or major routes along the desire lines.
• To locate terminals and to plan terminal facilities.
 Cont…
• To locate new bridge as per traffic demands.
• To locate intermediate stops of public transport.

Methods of ‘O’ and ‘D’ survey:

• Road- side interview method
• License plate method
• Return post card method
• Tag-on-car method
• Home interview method
 Traffic flow characteristics and studies
• The basic traffic maneuvers are diverging, merging,
crossing and weaving.
• Traffic Flow(q):- the rate at which vehicles pass at a fix
point (vehicles per hour)= N(3600/t).
• Traffic Density(k):- no. of vehicles(N) over a stretch of
roadway(L) i.e. vehicles per kilometer = N/L
• Time headway:- Time interval between the passage
of the fronts of the successive vehicles at a specified
point.
 Cont…
• Average time headway= average travel time per unit
distance x average space headway
Space headway:- distance between front of successive
vehicles.
• Average space headway= space mean speed x average
time headway
Flow Density Relationship
• Flow= density x space mean speed
 q= K x V
• Density = 1/ space headway
 1/hs
• Space mean speed = flow x Space headway
 q x hs
• Density = flow x time per unit distance
K = q x t
 Traffic capacity studies
Traffic capacity:
• The ability of a roadway to accommodate traffic volume. It is
expressed as the maximum number of vehicle in a lane or a
road that can pass a given point in unit time, usually an hour.
• Volume represent an actual rate of flow where as capacity
indicates a maximum rate of flow with a certain level of service.
Basic capacity:
• It is the maximum no. of passenger car that can be pass a given
point on a roadway during one hour under the most nearly
ideal roadway and traffic conditions. It is otherwise known
as theoretical capacity.
Possible capacity:
• It is the maximum no. vehicle that can pass a given point
on a roadway during one hour under prevailing roadway
and traffic conditions.
Practical capacity:
• It is the maximum no. of vehicle that can pass a given
point on a roadway during one hour, without traffic
density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay,
hazard or restriction to the driver freedom to maneuver
under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
• C= 1000 V/S
• S= average spacing of vehicle in m, C is the
capacity in vehicle per hour per lane.
 Peak-Hour Factor
• It is basically represent the variation in traffic flow
with in an hour.
• Observations of traffic flow consistently indicate
that the flow rates are found in the peak.
• A 15 minute period within an hour is not
sustained through out the entire period and that
is why we need to use the peak-hour factor.
• Normally on freeways the peak-hour factor values
range from 0.80 to 0.95.
 Passenger Car Unit (PCU)
• The different vehicle classes have a wide range of statics
characteristics and dynamic characteristics, apart from
these the driver behavior of the different vehicle classes
is also found to vary considerable. Therefore mixed traffic
flow characteristics are very much complex when
compare to homogeneous traffic and it is difficult to
estimate the traffic volume , capacity of roadway under
the mixed traffic flow, unless the different vehicle classes
are converted to one common standard vehicle unit.
• Therefore it is a common practice to consider the
passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to convert the
other vehicle classes and this unit is called passenger car
unit.
PCU value depends upon the several factors,
such as:
• Vehicle characteristics
• Transverse and longitudinal gaps or clearance
between moving vehicles.
• Speed distribution of the mixed traffic stream,
volume to capacity ratio.
• Roadway characteristics.
• Regulation and control of traffic.
• Environmental and climatic conditions.
 Passenger car equivalency factor(PCU)
• As per IRC:86-1983
S.L. Vehicle class Equivalency factor
No.
1 Motor cycle, Scooter and Pedal cycle 0.5

2 Passenger car, Tempo, auto rickshaw, Agricultural tractor, Pick- 1.0

up van
3 Cycle -rickshaw 1.5

4 Truck, Bus, Agricultural tractor-trailer 3.0

5 Horse-drawn vehicle 4.0

6 Small bullock-cart and Hand-cart 6.0

7 Large bullock-cart 8.0

Relation between speed, travel time, volume,
density and capacity
Refer page no.-208,209 and 210 of highway Engg.
by S.K. Khanna & C.E.G Justo
 Cont…
• Maximum flow occurs when the speed is Vsf/2
and the density is Kj/2

q V sf
m ax 
• Where,  K J
• Kj = jam density= 1000/spacing
4 of vehicle
• Vsf = free mean speed
• K= q/v
• q= average volume of vehicle, (veh./hr)
• V= space mean speed of vehicle,kmph
 Level of service(LOS)
 It is define as a qualitative measure describing the operational
condition within a traffic stream, and their perception by
motorist and passengers.
 Or Rating of acceptable level of congestion
 LOS definitions
 A: Free flow, low traffic, high speed
 B: Stable flow, noticeable traffic
 C: Stable flow, traffic interactions,
 D: Unstable flow, High density, movement restrictions
 E: Unstable flow, lower speed, volume is nearly equal
to capacity, little freedom
 F: Unstable flow, no freedom, traffic volume can drop to
zero, stop & go
 Cont…
LOS- A LOS- B
 Free-flow operation  Reasonably free flow
 no restriction  Ability to maneuver is
in
only slightly
maneuvering.
restricted
 Effects of minor incidents
still easily absorbed
 Cont….
LOS- C LOS- D
Speeds at or near FFS Speeds decline slightly
Freedom to maneuver is with increasing flows
noticeably restricted Density increases
Queues may form behind more
any significant quickly
blockage. Freedom to maneuver is
more noticeably
limited
Minor incidents create
queuing
 Cont…
LOS- E LOS- F
Operation near or at capacity Breakdown in flow
No usable gaps in the traffic Queues form behind
stream breakdown points
Operations extremely volatile Demand > capacity
Any disruption causes
queuing
 In India, As per IRC
LOS- B: for design of Rural Roads
LOS- C: for the design of Urban Roads
 Traffic operations
• Number of conflicts at intersection
 Crossing conflicts
 Merging conflicts
 Diverging conflicts

Number of lanes Number of potential conflicts

Road- A Road- B Both road two- A- Oneway Both roads
way B- twoway Oneway
2 2 24 11 6
2 3 24 11 8
2 4 32 17 10
3 3 24 13 11
4 4 44 25 18
 Bibliography
• Khanna, S. K., & Justo, C. E. G. “Highway
engineering”. Nem Chand & Bros.
• IRC Codes.