Research Methodology

Module 1: Lecture - 1
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 Course Objectives
The Course is designed with following objectives:

• To understand Research and Research Process

• To acquaint students with identifying problems for

research and develop research strategies

• To familiarize students with the techniques of data

collection, analysis of data and interpretation

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 Recommended References
1. Dawson, C. (2002). Practical Research Methods: A user-friendly guide to mastering
research techniques and projects, How To Books Ltd, 3 Newtec Place, Magdalen Road,
Oxford OX4 1RE. United Kingdom.
2. Kothari, C. R. (1980). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, New Delhi: New
Age International Publishers.
3. Kumar, R. (2011, 2019). Research Methodology: a step-by-step guide for beginners (3 rd
and 5th edition, SAGE Publications Ltd., TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Corwall.
4. Cohen, L. Lawrence, M., & Morrison, K. (2005). Research Methods in Education (5th edition).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5. Denscombes, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: For small-scale social research
projects. Maiden-Read: Open University Press.
6. Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7. Hoadjli, A.C. (2015). The Washback Effect of an Alternative Testing Model on Teaching and
Learning: An exploratory study on EFL secondary classes in Biskra. Unpublished Doctoral
Thesis, University of Mohamed Kheider, Biskra.
8. Leedy, P. D. (1980). Practical Research: Planning and design. Washington: Mc Millan
Publishing Co., Inc.
9. Singh, Y. K. (2006). Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics. New Delhi. New
International (P) Limited, Publishers.
10. Wallinman, N. (2006). Your Research Project: A step-by-step guide for the first-time
researcher. London: Sage Publications. 4
 Contents
Module 1: Introduction and Basic Research Concepts
1. Meaning of Research
2. Definitions of Research (Concept & Construct, Postulate,
Proposition, Thesis, Hypothesis, Law, Principle. Research methods vs.
Methodology)
3. Objectives of Research
4. Motivation in Research/ Need of Research in Business and Social
Sciences
5. General Characteristics/ Criteria of Good Research
6. Issues and Problems in Research

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 What is Research ?
• Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain,
predict and control the observed phenomenon.

• Research is to purposely and methodically search for new

knowledge and practical solutions in the form of answers to
questions, formulated beforehand.

• Research is also defined as a systematic inquiry that

investigates hypotheses, suggests new interpretations of
data or texts, and poses new questions for future research
to explore.
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Usually Research consists of: ??

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• Asking a question that nobody has asked
before;
•  Doing the necessary work to find the
answer; and
•  Communicating the knowledge you have
acquired to a larger audience.

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 “If you steal from one author it's
plagiarism; if you steal from
many it's research.” - Wilson Mizner

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 1. Meaning of Research
• Research seeks the answer of certain questions which have not been
answered so far, and the answers depend upon human efforts.

• In common parlance, it refers to a search for knowledge. The

Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of current English lays down the meaning
of research as a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge.

• We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown
confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and
attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown.
– This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method,
that we employ to obtain the knowledge of whatever unknown, can
be termed as research (Kothari, 1990).

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 2. Definition of Research
• The term ‘research’ consists of two words:
Research: Re+ search ‘Re’ means again and
again and ‘search’ means to find out
something. The following is the process:
• Person -- Observes ---> Phenomena - Collection of data -------> Conclusions
Again and again event Analysis of data new
fact

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• Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena
(event) again and again from different dimensions.

• It is a process, in which a person observes the phenomena

again and again and collects data, on the basis of data s/he
draws some conclusions.

• Research is oriented towards the discovery of relationship

that exists among phenomena of the world in which we live.

• The fundamental assumption is that invariant relationship

exists between events and certain results so that under a
specific set of conditions a certain consequences can be
expected to follow the introduction of a given antecedent.
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 According to George J. Mouly
• "Research is the systematic and scholarly
application of the scientific method
interpreted in its broadest sense, to the
solution of social […] problems; conversely,
any systematic study designed to encourage
the development of social studies as a science
can be considered research”.

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 According to Francis G. Cornell
• “To be sure the best research is that which is
reliable, verifiable, and exhaustive, so that it
provides information in which we have
confidence. The main point here is that
research is, literally speaking, a kind of
human behaviour, an activity in which people
engage”.

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 According to C. Woody
• “Research is a careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts
or principles; a hard-working investigation to make sure of
something; and this definition makes clear the fact that
research is not just a search for truth, but a prolonged (for
long time), intensive(strong), purposeful (resolve) search.

• It constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is

really a method of critical thinking. Research comprises
defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating
data; making decisions and reaching conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypotheses”.
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 According to C.C. Crawdford
• “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of
thinking, employing specialized tools, and procedures in
order to obtain a more suitable solution of a problem than
would be possible under ordinary means.
• It starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analyses these
critically and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence.
• It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of personal.
It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire
to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not
only what but how much, and measurement is therefore, a
central feature for it”.
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 According to P.M. Cook
• "Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent
searching for fact and their meanings or
implications with reference to a given
problem. The product of findings of a given
piece of research should be an authentic,
verifiable, and contribution to knowledge in
the field studied”

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He has emphasised the following characteristics of
research in his description:
− It is an honest and exhaustive process.
− The facts are studied with understanding.
− The facts are discovered in the light of a
problem. Research is problem- centred.
− The findings are valid and verifiable.
− Research work should contribute new
knowledge in that field (Cited in Singh, 2006).
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 According to P.D. Leedy
• “Research is the way in which we solve
difficult problems in an attempt to push back
the frontiers of human ignorance.
• Research is ultimately (in the end) a way of
thinking. It is a way of looking at
accumulated fact so that a collection of data
speaks to the mind of the researcher”.

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• Research begins with a question in the mind of the
researcher.
• Research requests the identification of a problem,
stated in clear.
• Research requires a plan.
• Research deals with the main problem through
appropriate sub-problems.
• Research seeks direction through appropriate
hypotheses and is based upon clear assumption.
• Research deals with facts.
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- Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be
used in a technical sense.
- Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth
with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
- In short, the search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The
systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation
of a theory is also research.
- As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method
consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some
theoretical formulation.
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 Some Terminologies

 Concept:
- It is an idea or imagination or description that occur in the mind, in speech, or in
thought.
- It can be recognizable but not measurable.
- A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain
events, objects, conditions, situations, and the like.
- If one is to understand and communicate information about objects and events,
there must be a common ground on which to do it.
- The success of research depends on how clearly we conceptualize and how well
others understand the concepts we use.

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 Construct:
- A concept is a construct when it is defined with clarity and a method to
measure it with the definition. Construct is a variable that cannot be directly
measurable. For e.g., Gravity
- A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research
and/or theory building purpose.
- We build constructs by combining the simpler concepts, especially when the
idea or image we intend to convey is not directly subject to observation.
For e.g., Presentation quality is a construct which is formed by combining
concept of typing speed, format accuracy etc.

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 Proposition:
- When building a theory, a set of assumptions are developed and from these
assumption, theoretical propositions are created. From these propositions,
hypothesis are derived and tested.
- The main difference between the two is that a hypothesis must be testable,
measurable and falsifiable, while a proposition deals with pure concepts for
which no laboratory test is currently available.
- Proposition is the hard rock from which the pathway for hypothesis starts.

 Hypothesis:
- The word hypothesis consists of two word: Hypo + thesis--- where ‘Hypo’ means
tentative and ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem. The
hypothesis is a tentative solution of a problem. It is a brilliant guess about the
solution of a problem.
- Hypothesis is one of the fundamental tools for research in any kind of
investigation. Researchers always plan or formulate a hypothesis in the beginning
of the problem. The research activities are planned to verify the hypothesis.
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 Postulates:
- The natural sciences and mathematics are based on Postulates. Postulates
are not proven; those are simply accepted at their face value.
- Hypothesis is based on some earlier theory, whereas postulates are taken as
granted true. For e.g., Galileo - Sun-centered solar system
- Hypothesis is a theory which can after testing be accepted or rejected. A
postulate is something that is assumed to be true without proof.

 Hypothesis vs. Propositions:

- The terms "proposition" and "hypothesis" both refer to the formulation of a
possible answer to a specific scientific question.
- In particular, a proposition deals with the connection between two existing
concepts.
- The main difference between the two is that a hypothesis must be testable
and measurable, while a proposition deals with pure concepts for which no
laboratory test is currently available.
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 Valid Uses for Propositions:
- Propositions can serve an important role in the scientific process.
- By suggesting a link between two concepts, a scientific proposition can suggest promising
areas of inquiry for researchers.
- In areas of study where valid hypotheses can rarely be made, a proposition may serve as a
common assumption that can support further speculation.
- This can occur in extremely complex systems, such as those dealt with by sociology and
economics, where an experimental test would be prohibitively expensive or difficult.
- Propositions are also valuable in areas of study in which little hard evidence remains, such
as archeological and paleontological studies in which only fragments of evidence have been
discovered.
 Drawbacks of Propositions:
- Because a proposition does not rely on testable data, it is more difficult to disprove in a
scientific context. It only needs to be convincing and internally consistent to appear valid.
- Propositions that satisfy both of these conditions have nevertheless been found to be
wrong or inaccurate when new testable data becomes available.
- Belief in propositions that have been commonly accepted for long periods of time may be
extremely difficult to overcome, even if other researchers put more likely propositions
forward.
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 3. Objectives of research
• The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
procedures.

• The main aim of research is to find out the truth which

is hidden and which has not been discovered yet.

• Kothari (1990) sees that each research study has its own
specific purposes. These objectives often fall under a
number of broad groupings as follows:

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• To improve familiarity with event or to achieve new insights
into it. Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory
or formulative research studies.
• To describe accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group. Studies with this object in view
are known as descriptive research studies.
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else. Studies with this
object in view are known as diagnostic research studies.
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
Studies with this objective are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies.
On the same issue, Singh (2006) provides a different
classification of objectives. For him, there are three
fundamental objectives of research:
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• Theoretical Objectives: Researches with objectives to formulate
new theories, principles, or laws. Such type of research is exploratory
because it explains the relationships of certain variables.

• Factual Objectives: Researches with objectives to find out new

facts. The objective by nature is descriptive. These researches
describe facts or events which happened previously. Such type of
research is done in history.

• Application objectives: The researches having application

objectives do not contribute a new knowledge, but suggest new
applications. By application, we mean improvement and
modification.

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 4. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or
more of the following:
• 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
• 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
• 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• 4. Desire to be of service to society;
• 5. Desire to get respectability.

• However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to

undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal
relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

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