Chapter One

Introduction to Database Systems

 Outline
Introduction to database system
1.1. Traditional File-Based Systems
1.2.Database Approach
1.3. Characteristics of the Database Approach
1.4.Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach
1.5.Roles in the Database Environment
1.6.History of Database Management Systems
1.7.Advantages and Disadvantages of DBMSs
Terminologies:

• Data : unprocessed facts or figures without contextconcerning

objects and events that could be recorded and stored on
computer media (e.g., numbers, symbols, text).
– For example, in a salesperson’s database, the data would include facts
such as customer name, address, and telephone number

• Information : Data that has been organized, processed, or

interpreted to provide meaning, context, or relevance
Example 1 : Temperature Readings

• Data: Individual hourly temperature values (e.g., 15°C,

18°C, 22°C, 19°C).

• Information: A graph showing the temperature trend over

a day, revealing that temperatures peaked at noon and
dropped by evening.
• Here, the raw numbers (data) are transformed into a
meaningful pattern (information).
Example 2: Sales in a Business
Data: Daily sales figures (e.g., 50 units, 30 units, 75 units).

Information: A monthly report highlighting the best-selling

product and a 20% increase in sales compared to the previous
month.

Example 3: Student Performance

Data: Test scores of students (e.g., 85, 92, 78).

Information: A class average of 85%, with a top scorer identified,

and a comparison to prior tests showing improvement.
Scores alone are data; analysis provides meaningful conclusions
(information).
Metadata
• Data that describe the properties or characteristics of end-user data
• You can think of metadata as “data about data”
• Metadata describe the properties of data but are separate
• from that data
• Some of the properties that are typically described include data names,
definitions, length (or size), and allowable values.
Example Metadata
Name Type Length Min Max Description
Course Alphanumeric 30 Course
name
Section Integer 1 1 9 Section
number
GPA Decimal 3 0.0 4.0 Student
grade point
average
Information System is a system that:
• Receives data and instruction
• Processes the data as per the instruction
• Produces output
• Stores data/information for future use
• In Information System (IS) is a collection of interconnected components
working together to collect, process, store, and distribute information to
support decision-making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization
in an organization.
• In simpler terms, it's a system designed to manage data and transform it into
useful information for specific purposes. Think of it as a system that takes in
data (input), does something with it (processing), stores it, and then provides
it to users (output).
Key components of an Information System often include:
• Hardware: Physical components like computers, servers, printers, network devices,
and mobile devices.

• Software: Programs and applications that enable the system to function, including
operating systems, database management systems, application software, and utilities.

• Data: Raw facts and figures that are collected, stored, and processed by the system.
This can include text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

• People: Individuals who use, manage, and maintain the system. This includes users,
developers, analysts, and IT professionals.

• Processes: Procedures and rules that govern how the system operates and how data is
collected, processed, and used.

• Networks: The communication infrastructure (e.g., the Internet, local area networks)
that allows components of the system to connect and share data.
DB course is about:
– How to organize data
• Supporting multiple users
• Efficient and effective data retrieval
• Secured and reliable storage of data
• Maintaining consistent data
• Making information useful for decision making
A database system is basically a computerized record keeping
system.
• Users of the database can perform a variety of operations.
Such as:
– Adding new data to empty file
– Adding new data to existing file
– Retrieving data from existing file
– Modifying data to existing file
– Deleting data from existing file
– Searching for target information
Data handling approaches or data handling methods

1. Manual Approach
2. Traditional File Based Approach
3. Database Approach
Manual Approach
– Data storage and retrieval follows the primitive and traditional
way of data/information handling where cards and papers are used
for the purpose.
– Typing the data on paper and put in a file cabinet
– storage and retrieval will be performed using human labor.
– Storing and organizing data using physical files, folders, and
cabinets.
– Tools: File cabinets, folders, labels, index cards.
– Example: Maintaining employee records in physical personnel
files.
– Works well if the number of items to be stored is small
Manual Data Summarization and Reporting:

• Manually calculating summary statistics (e.g., totals, averages)

and creating reports using calculators, paper, and pen.
• Tools: Calculators, rulers, graph paper.

Example: Creating a monthly sales report by manually calculating

totals from sales receipts.
Example:
Personal Calendar
• W e might start by building a file with the
following structure:
What Day Time with_whom Where

Lunch 10/24 1pm Abebe Bole

CS123 10/25 9am Seble Room 234
shop 10/26 9am Ayele Piassa
Dinner 10/26 6PM Elfinesh Café

• This calendar is easy to deal with.

6
Limitations of the Manual approach

– Prone to error

– Data loss: due to damaged papers or unable to locate it.

– Redundancy: multiple copies of the same data within the organization.

– Inconsistency: Modifications are not reflected on all multiple copies

– Problem of efficiency

– Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate

– You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information

– Limited to small size information

– Cross referencing is difficult

File based Approach
– An early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.

– There were, and still are, several computer applications with file based
processing for the purpose of data handling
– In such systems, every application program that provides service to
end users define and manage its own data.
– Such systems have number of programs for each of the different
applications in the organization.
– This approach to meet the data processing needs of individual
departments rather than the overall information needs of the
organization.
– In a traditional file-based approach, data is stored in separate,
unstructured files managed by different departments.
File based Approach (Cont’d)

– And this approach is the decentralized computerized data

handling method.
– Such systems have number of programs for each of the
different applications in the organization.
– Since every application defines and manages its own data,
the system is subjected to serious data duplication problem.
Scenario: University Departments with Individual Files

Students Affairs Office

File: students.txt
Structure:
StudentID | Name | Address
1 | Alice | 123 Main St
2 | Bob | 456 Elm St

Function: Stores student personal details.

Registrar's Office
File: registrations.txt
StudentID | CourseCode | Semester
1 | CS101 | Fall2024
2 | MATH202 | Spring2024

Function: Tracks course enrollments.

Billing Department
File: payments.txt
Structure:
StudentID | AmountDue | PaymentDate
001 | 500 | 2024-01-15
002 | 750 | 2024-02-20

Function: Manages fee payments.

F ile-B ased A pproac h

14
Limitations of the File Based approach
– Duplication of data (Redundancy)
data duplication occurs when the same data is stored
redundantly across multiple files managed by different
applications
• This redundancy arises because each application typically
has its own set of data files, with no centralized
mechanism to share or synchronize data. This leads to
wasted storage space, inconsistency, and update
anomalies (where changes in one file are not reflected in
others).
– Inconsistency

• If Alice updates her name to "Alicia" in students.txt but

payments.txt still lists "Alice", reports will show conflicting
information.
Limitations of the File Based approach(Cont’d)
Example:
Imagine a university that uses two separate file-based systems:

Exam Department: Manages student exam records in

exam_records.txt.

Library Department: Tracks book borrowing in library_records.txt.

• Both departments need basic student information (e.g., Student ID,

Name, Email), but since there’s no shared database, they store this
data redundantly in their own files.
Limitations of the File Based approach(Cont’d)

Problem: Duplication Causes Inconsistency

• Suppose Bob Lee updates his email from [email protected] to [email protected].

The library department updates their file, but the exam department forgets to
do so. Now:
exam_records.txt still shows [email protected].
library_records.txt shows [email protected].

Consequences:
1. Data Inconsistency:
Two versions of Bob’s email exist, leading to confusion. For example,
emails sent by the exam department will fail to reach him.
2. Wasted Storage:
• The same data (StudentID, Name, Email) is stored twice, consuming
unnecessary disk space.
Consequence of duplication (Cont’d)

3. Update Anomalies:
• A simple change requires manual updates in multiple files. If one file is
missed, the data becomes inconsistent.

Three types of anomalies:

– Modification Anomalies: a problem experienced when one ore more
data value is modified on one application program but not on others
containing the same data set.
– Deletion Anomalies: a problem encountered where one record set is
deleted from one application but remain untouched in other application
programs.
– Insertion Anomalies: a problem experienced when ever there is new
data item to be recorded, and the recording is not made in all the
applications
Limitations of the File Based approach

– Program-data Dependence
• File descriptions are stored within each database application
program that accesses a given file
• Because the program contains a detailed file description for
these files, any change to a file structure requires
corresponding changes to the program code

– Eg: adding a new field can break multiple programs. So it

requires reprogramming
Limitations of the File Based approach(Cont’d)

Limited data sharing

• With the traditional file processing approach, each application has its own
private files, and users have little opportunity to share data outside their
own applications. Notice
Limitations of the File Based approach(Cont’d)

– Separation/Isolation of data:
• Available information in one application may not be
known. Data is fragmented across multiple files, and there
is no mechanism to link or integrate related data from
different files.
• Generating a report like “Students enrolled in CS101 with
unpaid fees” requires manual merging of registrations.txt
and payments.txt in custom code.

– Security Issues
• File permissions are managed at the OS level. If payments.txt is
accidentally made readable to all, sensitive data is exposed.
Limitations of the File Based approach(Cont’d)

– Incompatible file formats

• Programs are written in different languages, and so cannot
easily access each others files.

– Concurrency Problems
• If two departments attempt to update students.txt
simultaneously (e.g., updating an address and enrolling a
new student), the file may corrupt without proper locking.
– Lengthy development and maintenance time
• With traditional file processing systems, each new application
requires that the developer essentially start from scratch by
designing new file formats and descriptions and then writing
the file access logic for each new program.
Database Approach
• A Database is shared collection of logically related data (and a

description of this data), designed to meet the information

needs of an organization. (Centralized System).

– Shared collection – can be used simultaneously by many

departments and users.

– Logically related - comprises the important objects and the

relationships between these objects.

– Description of the data – the system catalog (data dictionary or

meta-data) provides description of data to enable data independence

(program–data independence).
Database Approach (Cont’d)

• Database is a collection of logically related data where these

logically related data comprises entities, attributes,
relationships, and business rules of an organization's
information.
• In addition to containing data required by an organization,
database also contains a description of the data which called as
“Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems Catalogue” or
“Data about Data”.
Database Approach (Cont’d)
• The organization of the database becomes necessary when the
data is voluminous. Otherwise, managing data will be very
difficult.
E.g.
• A Manufacturing Company with product data
• A Bank with account data
• A Hospital with patients
• A University with Students
• A government with planning data
The advantages of a database approach
– Compactness

– Speed

– Accuracy

– Improved Data sharing

– Redundancy can be reduced

– Inconsistency can (to some extent) avoided

– Standards can be enforced

– Security restrictions can be applied

– Integrity can be maintained

– Conflicting requirements can be balanced

– Transaction support can be provided

– Improved decision support

The advantages of a database approach(Cont’d)

Program-data Independence
• The separation of data descriptions (metadata) from the application
programs that use the data is called data independence. With the database
approach, data descriptions are stored in a central location called the
repository. This property of database systems allows an organization’s data
to change and evolve (within limits) without changing the application
programs that process the data.

Data Sharing and Accessibility

• Multiple users and applications can access data simultaneously through a
centralized system.
The advantages of a database approach(Cont’d)

Data Integrity and Consistency

• Databases enforce rules (e.g., constraints, data types, referential
integrity) to ensure accuracy and consistency.
• This helps to reduces human errors (e.g., invalid entries,
duplicate records) and maintains reliable data across
applications.

Data Sharing and Accessibility

• Multiple users and applications can access data simultaneously
through a centralized system.
The advantages of a database approach(Cont’d)

Reduced Data redundancy and inconsistency

• Redundancy can be controlled by maintaining a single repository of data
that is defined once and is accessed by many users. As there is no or less
redundancy, data remains consistent.
• Normalization techniques eliminate duplicate data by storing information
in linked tables. This Saves storage space and ensures updates propagate
automatically, avoiding inconsistencies.
Controlling Data concurrency
• Concurrent access to data means more than one user is accessing the same
data at the same time
The advantages of a database approach(Cont’d)

Data Integrity can be maintained

• Data integrity refers to the accuracy, consistency, and

reliability of data stored in a database throughout its lifecycle.
• It ensures that data remains unaltered and valid during
operations like creation, updates, and deletions, adhering to
predefined rules and constraints.
The advantages of a database approach(Cont’d)

Enforcement of Standards
• These standards will include naming conventions, data quality
standards, and uniform procedures for accessing, updating, and
protecting data.
• Centralized information control
Limitations and risk of Database Approach

• Introduction of New, Specialized Personnel

– Frequently, organizations that adopt the database approach need to hire or
train individuals to design and implement databases, provide database
administration services, and manage a staff of new people. Further,
because of the rapid changes in technology, these new people will have to
be retrained or upgraded on a regular basis.

• Complexity in designing and managing data

• Conversion Costs
– The term legacy system is widely used to refer to older applications in
an organization that are based on file processing and/or older database
technology. The cost of converting these older systems to modern
database technology— measured in terms of dollars, time, and
organizational commitment—may often seem prohibitive to an
organization.
Limitations and risk of Database Approach

• Other Costs : Databases can be expensive to implement(or

develop) and maintain the system. This includes the cost of
software, hardware, and skilled personnel.

• Backup and Recovery:

– Complex backup and recovery services from the users
perspective
– Regular backups are essential to prevent data loss. However,
if backups are not done properly or if recovery processes are
not tested, data can be lost permanently in case of a failure.
Limitations and risk of Database Approach(Cont’d)

• Performance Issues:
• Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency

• Large databases can sometimes slow down, especially when handling complex

queries or a high number of users, leading to slower response times

• Security Risks
• Databases store sensitive information, making them a target for hackers. If not
properly secured, data breaches can occur, leading to loss or theft of information.

• High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central

system

.
 Components of a Database System

Database system is a combination of a database and the software

(DBMS) that manages it, enabling users and applications to store,
retrieve, and manipulate data in an organized and efficient

Four major components:

– data
– hardware
– software
– users and designers of database
Components of a Database System(Cont’d)
Data
Issues
• stored as a single database or distributed
• Is the system a single-user or multi-user one?
• How are we going to achieve the utmost possible performance
concerning the data storage and maintenance?
• What other benefits or drawbacks do we expect as the result of
placement or structure of the database?
Components of a Database System(Cont’d)

Hardware
• secondary storage media (disks, tapes and optical media)
• controllers (hard disk controller, etc.); and
the processor(s) and associated main memory
Components of a Database System(Cont’d)

Software: Database Management System (DBMS)

• A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of
programs that enables users to create and maintain a database.
• The DBMS is hence a general-purpose software system that
facilitates the processes of defining, constructing,
manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and
applications.
Components of a Database System(Cont’d)

• Defining a database involves specifying the data types, structures, and

constraints for the data to be stored in the database.

• Constructing the database is the process of storing the data itself on some

storage medium that is controlled by the DBMS.

• Manipulating a database includes such functions as querying the database

to retrieve specific data, updating the database to reflect changes in the

miniworld, and generating reports from the data.

• Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access the

database concurrently.
Components of a Database System(Cont’d)

– DBMS Is responsible for the overall management of

communications between the user and the database.
– It is found between the data and the users, which, in other
words, means the data is entirely covered or shielded by
the DBMS software.
– The DBMS provides facilities for operating on the
database.
– It helps to control access to the database
Characteristics of the Database Approach

The main characteristics of the database approach are the

following:
1. Self-describing nature of a database system
2. Insulation between programs and data, and data
abstraction
3. Support of multiple views of the data
4. Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing
5. Represent some Aspect of Real World Application
6. Easy Operation Implementation
7. Control of data redundancy
8. Restriction of unauthorized access
Fundamentals Database Systems 49
Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

1. Self-Describing Nature of a Database System

• Database system contains not only the database (the actual data like customer name)

itself but also a complete definition or description of the database structure and

constraints(like what fields exit in a table). This helps users and apps understand the

structure without needing extra documents.

• The definition contains information like

– the structure of each file, the type and storage

– format of each data item, and

– various constraints on the data.

• These information are called meta-data.

• This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog.

50
Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction

• In DBMS the structure of data files is stored in the DBMS

catalog separately from the access programs.
– We call this property program-data independence.

– Changes to the database (like adding a new field) don’t force

you to rewrite existing applications. The applications and the
data are kept separate, so updates don’t break things.

Fundamentals Database Systems 51

 Example

• Assume we have the following catalog for registrar database.

Fundamentals Database Systems 52

Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

• Internal storage format for a STUDENT record, based on the

above database catalog

Fundamentals Database Systems 53

Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

• The characteristic that allows program-data is called data

abstraction.
• A DBMS provides users with a conceptual representation of data

– This does not include many of the details of how the data is stored
or how the operations are implemented.
– Database users and application programs refer to the conceptual
representation of the files, and the DBMS extracts the details of
file storage from the catalog when these are needed by the DBMS
file access modules.
Fundamentals Database Systems 54
Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

3. Support of Multiple Views of the Data

• A database typically has many users. Each of whom may require a different
perspective or view of the database.
• Different users can see the data in ways that fit their needs. For example, a
teacher’s view of a school database might show grades, while the principal’s
view shows attendance trends.
• A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is
derived from the database files but is not explicitly stored.
• A multiuser DBMS whose users have a variety of distinct applications must
provide facilities for defining multiple views.

Fundamentals Database Systems 55

Example
• Assume we have data about
– course
– section
– grade_report
– Prerequisite
• One user of the database may be interested only in accessing
and printing the transcript of each student;

Fundamentals Database Systems 56

Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

• A second user, who is interested only in checking that students

have taken all the prerequisites of each course for which they
register,

Fundamentals Database Systems 57

Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing

• A transaction is an executing program or process that includes one or more
database accesses, such as reading or updating of database records.

• A multiuser DBMS must allow multiple users to access the database at the same

time.

• When many people use the database at once. The system must manage conflicts,
like two users editing the same record, to keep things smooth and accurate.
• The DBMS must include concurrency control software to ensure that several
users trying to update the same data do so in a controlled manner so that the
result of the updates is correct.

Fundamentals Database Systems 58

Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

5. Represent some Aspect of Real World Application:

• A database represents some features real world applications.

6. Easy Operation Implementation-All operations like insert, delete,

update, search etc are carried out in a flexible and easy way. Database
makes it very simple to implement these operations. A user with little
knowledge can perform these operations. This characteristics of database
makes it more powerful.

7. Control of data redundancy- In the database approach, ideally, each

data item is stored in only one place in the database.
In some cases, data redundancy still exits to improve system performance,
but such redundancy is controlled by application programming and kept to
minimum by introducing little redundancy as possible when designing the
database.
Characteristics of the Database Approach(Cont’d)

8. Restriction of unauthorized access-Not all users of a database

system will have the same accessing privileges. For example, one
user might have read-only access(ie, the ability to read a file but
not make changes),while another might have read and write
privileges, which is the ability to both read and modify a file.
Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach

• Controlling Redundancy
• Restricting Unauthorized Access
• Providing Persistent Storage for Program Objects and Data Structures
Permitting Inferencing and Actions Using Rules
• Providing Multiple User Interfaces
• Representing Complex Relationships Among Data
• Enforcing Integrity Constraints
• Providing Backup and Recovery
Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach (Cont’d)

Controlling Redundancy -In traditional software development

utilizing file processing, every user group maintains its own files
for handling its data-processing applications. This leads to
duplication of effort , wastage of storage space and inconsistency.
In the database approach, the views of different user groups are
integrated during database design

Restricting Unauthorized Access -When multiple users share a

database, it is likely that some users will not be authorized to
access all information in the database. A DBMS should provide a
security and authorization subsystem, which the DBA uses to
create accounts and to specify account restriction The DBMS
should then enforce these restrictions automatically.
Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach (Cont’d)
Providing Persistent Storage for Program Objects and Data
Structures - Databases can be used to provide persistent storage
for program objects and data structures.

Providing Multiple User Interfaces

• Because many types of users with varying levels of technical
knowledge use a database, a DBMS should provide a variety of user
interfaces. These include query languages for casual users;
programming language interfaces for application programmers; forms
and command codes for parametric users; and menu-driven interfaces
and natural language interfaces for stand-alone users. Both forms-
style interfaces and menu-driven interfaces are commonly known as
graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach (Cont’d)
Representing Complex Relationships Among Data
• A database may include numerous varieties of data that are
interrelated in many ways. A DBMS must have the capability to
represent a variety of complex relationships among the data as
well as to retrieve and update related data easily and efficiently

•Enforcing Integrity Constraints

• Most database applications have certain integrity constraints
that must hold for the data. A DBMS should provide
capabilities for defining and enforcing these constraints. The
simplest type of integrity constraint involves specifying a data
type for each data item. Another type of constraint specifies
uniqueness on data item values,
Advantages of Using the DBMS Approach (Cont’d)
Providing Backup and Recovery
• A DBMS must provide facilities for recovering from hardware
or software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem of
the DBMS is responsible for recovery.
Disadvantages of DBMSs (Cont’d)s
Cost of conversion : The cost of conversion from old file-
system to new database system is very high. In some cases the
cost of conversion is so high that the cost of DBMS and extra
hardware becomes insignificant. It also includes the cost of
training manpower and hiring the specialized manpower to
convert and run the system.

Need of additional and specialized manpower : Any

organization having database systems, need to be hire and train
its manpower on regular basis to design and implement
databases and to provide database administration services.
Disadvantages of DBMSs (Cont’d)s
Frequent Update/ replacement cycle:
• DMBS vendors frequently upgrade their products by adding
new functionalities. Some of these versions require hardware
upgrades. Not only the upgrades themselves cost money, but
also costs money to train database users and administrators to
properly use and manage the new features.

.
Roles in the Database Environment
• The users of a database system can be classified into various
categories depending upon their interaction and degree of
expertise of the DBMS.
1. Actors on the Scene
2. Actors behind the Scene

• People whose jobs involve the day-to-day use of a large

database; we call them the actors on the scene.
• Peoples whose work is to maintain the database system
environment but who are not actively interested in the
database contents---are called workers behind the scene
Roles in the Database Environment(Cont’d)

Actors On the Scene:

– Database Administrator
– Data Administrator
– Database Designer
– End Users

Fundamentals Database Systems 69

 Database Administrator (DBA)
• Database Administrator (DBA) is a person who have
complete control over database of any enterprise.
– Responsible to oversee, control and manage the
database resources (the database itself, the DBMS and
other related software)
– Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
– Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware
and software resources
– Accountable for problems like poor security, poor
performance of the system
 Database Administrator (DBA) (Cont’d)
• Deciding users : DBA gives permission to users to use
database. Without having proper permission, no one can
access data from database.
• Granting of authorities : DBA decides which user can use
which portion of database. DBA gives authorities or rights to
data access. User can use only that data on which access right
is granted to him.
• Security : Security is the major concern in database. DBA
takes various steps to make data more secure against various
disasters and unauthorized access of data.
• Monitoring the performance : DBA is responsible for
overall performance of database. DBA regularly monitors the
database to maintain its performance and try to improve it.
 Database Administrator (DBA) (Cont’d)
• Backup : DBA takes regular backup of database, so that it can be
used during system failure. Backup is also used for checking data
for consistency.
• Removal of dump and maintain free space : DBA is responsible
for removing unnecessary data from storage and maintain enough
free space for daily operations. He can also increase storage
capacity when necessary.
• Involves in all steps of database development
• Deciding the conceptual schema or contents of database : DBA
decides the data fields, tables, queries, data types, attributes,
relations, entities or you can say that he is responsible for overall
logical design of database.
• Deciding the internal schema of structure of physical storage :
DBA decides how the data is actually stored at physical storage,
how data is represented at physical storage.
Data Administrator (DA)
• is responsible on management of data resources. Involves in
database planning, development, maintenance of standards
policies and procedures at the conceptual and logical design
phases.
• Defines Data Policies and Standards
– sets the rules for what data gets collected, how it’s named, and how it’s
supposed to be used.
• Managing Data as a Business Asset
• Ensuring Data Quality
• Planning Data Needs
Database Designer (DBD)
• These are the architects.

• Identifies the data to be stored and choose the appropriate

structures to represent and store the data.
• Should understand the user requirement and should choose
how the user views the database.
• Involve on the design phase before the implementation of the
database system.
• They figure out how the database should be structured—
tables, relationships, keys
• We have two distinctions of database designers, one involving
in the logical and conceptual design and another involving in
physical design.
Logical and Conceptual DBD
– Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship) relevant to the
organization
– Identifies constraints on each data
– Understand data and business rules in the organization
– Sees the database independent of any data model at conceptual
level and consider one specific data model at logical design
phase.
Physical DBD
– Take logical design specification as input and decide
how it should be physically realized.
– Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS with
respect to tables and integrity constraints. (DBMS
dependent designing)
– Select specific storage structure and access path
to the database
– Design security measures required on the database
Application Programmer and Systems Analyst
• System analyst determine the requirements of end users, and develop
specifications for canned transactions that meet these requirements.

• The application programmer

– who are responsible for writing application programs that use the database

using some programming language such as COBOL, Pascal, or a

programming language built-in to the DBMS.

– implements these specifications as programs; code, test, debug, document and

maintain the application program.

– Determines the interface on how to retrieve, insert, update and delete data in

the database.

– The application could use any high level programming language according to

the availability, the facility and the required service.

End-users

• End users are the people whose jobs require access to the database for querying,
updating, and generating reports; the database primarily exists for their use.

• There are different group of users in this category.

Naive or parametric end users

• Make up a sizable portion of database end users.

• Their main job function revolves around constantly querying and updating the
database, using standard types of queries and updates—called canned
transactions—that have been carefully programmed and tested.
• Unaware of the DBMS
• Only access the database based on their access level and demand
• Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.
– Eg. Bank tellers ,reservation agents for airlines, hotels, and car rental companies
Sophisticated Users

• Include engineers, scientists, business analysts, and others who

thoroughly familiarize themselves with the facilities of the DBMS so as
to implement their applications to meet their complex requirements
• Are users familiar with the structure of the Database and facilities of the
DBMS.
• Have complex requirements
• Have higher level queries

Casual Users

• Occasionally access the database, but they may need different

information each time. They use a sophisticated database query
language to specify their requests and are typically middle- or high-
level managers or other occasional browsers
Workers behind the Scene

• In addition to those who design, use, and administer a database, others are
associated with the design, development, and operation of the DBMS software
and system environment. These persons are typically not interested in the
database itself. We call them the "workers behind the scene," and they include the
following categories.
• DBMS system designers and implementers

– design and implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software

package.
• Tool developers

– design and implement tools- the software packages that facilitate database
modeling and design, database system design, and help improve performance.
Fundamentals Database Systems 80
Operators and maintenance personnel

• are the system administration personnel who are responsible

for the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and
software environment for the database system

Fundamentals Database Systems 81