Module 3

Illumination Systems
• Lumen:- The lumen (lm) measures the total visible light emitted by a light source.
It quantifies brightness, with higher lumens indicating a brighter light. It’s a key
factor in determining how much light a fixture or bulb produces, affecting
visibility and light distribution.
• Intensity:- Light intensity refers to the amount of light emitted in a specific
direction. Measured in candelas (cd), it helps assess how focused or spread out the
light is. Higher intensity means a more concentrated beam of light, while lower
intensity indicates a diffused or scattered light source.
• Candle Power:- Candle power is an old term for luminous intensity, describing the
brightness of a light source in a given direction. It is measured in candelas (cd).
The term originates from the light emitted by a standard candle, but it’s now
largely replaced by the term "luminous intensity.“

• Lamp efficiency:- Lamp efficiency is the ratio of luminous output (lumens) to

energy input (watts). It’s usually expressed as lumens per watt (lm/W). A more
efficient lamp produces more light with less energy, reducing electricity
consumption and operational costs.
• Specific Consumption:- Specific consumption measures how much electrical
energy is required to produce a certain amount of light output. It is typically
expressed in watt-hours per lumen (Wh/lm). This helps evaluate a light source's
energy efficiency, showing how much power is needed for each lumen of light
produced.
• Glare:- Glare occurs when there is excessive brightness in the field of vision,
causing discomfort or impairing visibility. It can be direct, from a light source, or
reflected from surfaces. Glare affects visual comfort and can lead to reduced
performance or even accidents.
• Space to Height Ratio: The space-to-height ratio compares the
horizontal area to be illuminated with the vertical height of the light
source. This ratio helps in determining optimal light placement and
spacing. A larger ratio may require higher-mounted fixtures to ensure
uniform illumination across a large area.
• Waste Light Factor: The waste light factor is a correction value used
to account for light that is not effectively used for illumination. This
includes light lost through reflections or scattered light that doesn't
contribute to the intended target area. It helps refine lighting designs
for better energy efficiency.
• Depreciation Factor: The depreciation factor accounts for the loss of
light output over time as a lamp or bulb ages. As light sources degrade,
their brightness diminishes, and the depreciation factor helps adjust
the design to ensure that adequate illumination levels are maintained
throughout the life of the lighting system.
Various illumination
schemes
• Depending upon the requirements and the way light reaches the
surface to make the object and surface visible, lighting schemes are
classified as follows:
• Direct lighting
• Semi-direct lighting
• Indirect lighting
• Semi-indirect lighting
• General lighting
Direct Lighting
• In this method of the scheme, about 90
to 100% of the light from the source is
directed towards the working plane or
object or surface to be illuminated.
The remaining about 10% of the total
flux goes to the other direction or the
upper hemisphere. Light may be
directed on the working plane by the
use of suitable reflectors or bracket
lamps or by additional pendant
fittings.
Semi Direct Lighting
• In this method, about 60 to
90% of the light from the source
is directed towards the working
plane. The remaining 10 to
40% goes to other directions or
the upper hemisphere. For this
purpose translucent is used as
shown in the figure. These
fittings produce soft shadows
and are well-suited for
commercial applications.
 General Lighting
• The below figure shows general
lighting. In this method, about 40
to 60% of the light flux from the
source is directed on the working
plane or lower hemisphere. The
remaining light flux goes in other
directions. It needs frequent
cleaning. Here also translucent
reflectors of different thicknesses
or colors are used. These fittings
produce almost uniform or soft
light with little shadows.
Indirect Lighting
• In this method 0 to 10% of the light flux
from the source is directed on the
working plane or lower hemisphere. The
remaining 90 to 100% of the light goes
to the upper hemisphere. Actually, 0 to
10% of the light on the working plane is
also due to the reflectivity of the ceiling.
The below Figure illustrates the indirect
(fitting) lighting. High-intensity
(wattage) lamps will be used for this
purpose. These fittings do not produce
any glare or shadows. This type of
fittings is used for clubs and restaurants.
 Semi Indirect Lighting
• In this type of fittings, about 10 to 40%
flux of the light flux from the source is
directed on the working surface or lower
hemisphere. The remaining 90 to 60% of
the light flux goes to the upper
hemisphere, light flux on the working
surface is mostly due to the reflectivity of
the ceiling and walls, Frequent cleaning is
necessary due to its shape and collects
some insects as well. The figure below
illustrates the semi indirect lighting. These
fittings produce faint shadows and are
used for decorative lighting purposes in
parking lots, gate posts, etc.
Incandescent Lamp
• The incandescent lamp or light or bulb is an electric light source that
works through the incandescence phenomenon that means the light
emission can be caused by filament heating. These lamps are available
in different sizes with different voltages and wattages. Here, the
voltage range of these bulbs ranges from 1.5V to 300V.
Incandescent Lamp
Construction
• The construction of an
incandescent lamp can be done
by using different parts like a
Glass bulb, Inert gas, Tungsten
filament, Contact wire to foot,
Contact wire to base, Support
wires, Glass mount or support,
Base contact wire, Screw
threads, Insulation, and Electrical
foot contact.
• Glass Bulb:- An incandescent lamp has a glass enclosure including a
tungsten filament.
• Inert Gas:- The inert gas used to fill the light bulb is argon/nitrogen to
reduce the evaporation of the filament. So it increases the life of the
lamp by preventing the filament from falling too quickly.
• Tungsten Filament:- The Filament in the lamp is the thread or wire
that lights up once you turn it on. The material used to make this
filament is Tungsten metal because the melting point of this is very
high and also heat resistant.
• Contact Wires:- The base of the bulb with two connections is called
contact wires which provide electrical connections toward the
filament.
• Support Wires:- Support wires are small wires which are connected
to the stem to give support to the filament of the lamp.
• Glass Mount or Support:- Incandescent light bulbs include a glass
mount that is connected to the base of the lap which permits the
electrical contacts to run throughout the envelope without air or gas
leaks.
• Screw Thread:- Most of the lamps screw into a socket. In household bulbs,
a medium screw base is used which is called an Edison screw. Its diameter is
1¹⁄16 inches including seven threads for every inch.
• Insulation:- The base of the lamp is made of brass originally & protected
with plaster of Paris & after that porcelain. Nowadays, aluminum is used at
the outside of the lamp & glass is used to protect the inner base so that a
stronger base can be formed.
• Electrical Foot Contact:- At the base of a lamp or light bulb is known as
electrical foot contacts which are coated with a material to protect the
electricity. These two contacts will help in connecting with an electricity
source.
Incandescent Lamp
Working
• An incandescent lamp mainly works on the incandescence principle which means
the light can be generated through heat. In this type of lamp, the current is
supplied throughout a thin metal filament. Once the filament is heated then it
glows to generate light.

• Generally, these lamps use a tungsten filament due to their high melting point. The
filament in this bulb can reach 4,500 degrees F temperatures. A glass enclosure
avoids oxygen within the air from reaching the filament otherwise the filament
gets overheated & oxidized within seconds. This incandescent lamp works quite
well in generating light. So it is suitable for a wide range of applications.
CFL
(compact fluorescent lamp)

• A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) is a type of fluorescent lamp that has been
compressed into the size of an ordinary incandescent lamp. It works on the
principle of gas discharge, i.e., ionization of gas by the electric current.
• The modern CFL was invented by Edward E. Hammer in 1973.
• CFLs consume very less power than an incandescent lamp.
• The increasing variety of shape and color and small size of CFL have made them
more versatile and acceptable than the conventional long tube fluorescent lamps.
Construction and Working of CFL
• A typical CFL consists of a gas filled tube with two electrodes mounted in an end
cap. The tube contains a mixture of argon gas, mercury vapor and liquid mercury
at low pressure. The tube is also coated on the inside with three different
phosphors.
• When the electric supply is connected to the electrodes, an electric arc is created
between two electrodes. The electric arc produces the flow of electrons. When the
mercury atoms inside the tube are bombarded by these electrons produce
ultraviolet radiation. The phosphor coating inside the tube give off light when
exposed to the UV radiation.
LED
(Light emitting diode)
• The lighting emitting diode is
a p-n junction diode. It is a
specially doped diode and made
up of a special type of
semiconductors. When the light
emits in the forward biased, then
it is called a light-emitting diode.
 Construction of LED
• The construction of LED is very simple because it is designed through the deposition
of three semiconductor material layers over a substrate. These three layers are
arranged one by one where the top region is a P-type region, the middle region is
active and finally, the bottom region is N-type. The three regions of semiconductor
material can be observed in the construction. In the construction, the P-type region
includes the holes; the N-type region includes elections whereas the active region
includes both holes and electrons.
• When the voltage is not applied to the LED, then there is no flow of electrons and
holes so they are stable. Once the voltage is applied then the LED will forward biased,
so the electrons in the N-region and holes from P-region will move to the active
region. This region is also known as the depletion region. Because the charge carriers
like holes include a positive charge whereas electrons have a negative charge so the
light can be generated through the recombination of polarity charges.
Working of LED
• The light-emitting diode simply, we know as a diode. When the diode
is forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving fast across
the junction and they are combined constantly, removing one another
out. Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type
silicon, it combines with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it makes
the complete atom & more stable and it gives the little burst of energy
in the form of a tiny packet or photon of light.
• The diagram shows how the light-emitting diode
works and the step by step process of the diagram.

• From the diagram, we can observe that the N-type

silicon is in red color including the electrons which
are indicated by the black circles.

• The P-type silicon is in the blue color and it

contains holes, they are indicated by the white
circles.

• The power supply across the p-n junction makes the

diode forward biased and pushing the electrons
from n-type to p-type. Pushing the holes in the
opposite direction.

• Electron and holes at the junction are combined.

• The photons are given off as the electrons and holes

are recombined.
Energy saving in
illumination systems
• The base energy saving techniques and strategies are:
• Utilise the most energy efficient lamp/luminaire
combinations.
• Maximise the use of daylight
• Make lighting control as local as possible
• Use light coloured walls and ceilings
• Get staff involved in energy saving planning
i) Replacing Lamp Sources
This entails replacing standard incandescent or fluorescent bulbs with more energy-
efficient options such as LED (Light Emitting Diode) or CFL (Compact Fluorescent
bulbs).
Benefits
• Energy Efficiency: LEDs consume significantly less power compared to
incandescent and fluorescent lamps.
• Longer Lifespan: LEDs have a much longer operational life, reducing the need for
frequent replacements.
• Reduced Heat Emission: LEDs produce less heat, which can lower cooling costs.
ii) Using Energy Efficient Luminaries
Luminaries are full lighting units, consisting of the lamp, housing, and other
components. Using energy-efficient luminaries guarantees that the complete device
is designed to produce the most light while using the least amount of electricity.
Benefits
• Optimized Light Distribution: Better design can lead to improved light
distribution and reduced wastage.
• Advanced Materials: Use of reflective and refractive materials to enhance light
output.
• Reduced Power Consumption: Integrating high-efficiency ballasts and drivers
that consume less electricity.
iii) Using Light Controlled Gears
• These are devices and systems that automate lighting
based on occupancy, daylight availability, or
predetermined schedules.
Flood Lighting
• It is the night-time lighting of exterior areas such as areas of industry,
railway yards, sports stadiums, quarries, parking and to enhance the
beauty of ancient monuments, etc. The aim of flood lighting is to
attract attention and to please the eye.
• For flood lighting, large buildings with more distinctive architectural
features, such as civic centers, temples, churches, etc, very effective
results can be obtained by the use of light and shade. By varying the
illumination of different parts of the building, or by not illuminating
some parts at all, proportions and design can be emphasized. This
must be provided without glare.