UNIT-3

PART2
Knowledge and Reasoning:
• Knowledge representation issues,
• predicate logic-Resolution, Unification,
• Representation knowledge using Rules-Inference in First – order logic
forward and backward reasoning.
Knowledge and Reasoning
• Knowledge refers to the information that an AI system has about the
world (or) Knowledge is the basic element for a human brain to know
and understand the things logically.
• This information can be obtained through various means, such as
sensors, databases, or human input.
• The knowledge can be in different forms, such as rules, facts, or
heuristics.
• The more knowledge an AI system has, the better it can understand
and reason about the world.
• Reasoning, on the other hand, is the process by which an AI system
uses its knowledge to draw conclusions or make decisions.
 Knowledge and Reasoning (cont..)
• There are different types of reasoning, such as deductive reasoning,
inductive reasoning, and abductive reasoning.
• In deductive reasoning, an AI system applies logical rules to reach a
conclusion based on given premises.
• In inductive reasoning, an AI system derives general principles from
specific observations.
• In abductive reasoning, an AI system infers the best explanation for a
given observation.
Example:
• To illustrate how knowledge and reasoning work in AI, imagine an AI
system that helps diagnose medical conditions.
• The system would need to have a large amount of medical knowledge,
such as symptoms, treatments, and risk factors.
• It would then use deductive reasoning to match a patient's symptoms
with known medical conditions and come up with a diagnosis.
• The system may also use inductive reasoning to learn from past cases
and improve its accuracy over time.
What is Logic?
• Logic is the key behind any knowledge. It allows a person to filter the
necessary information from the bulk and draw a conclusion.
• In AI, the representation of knowledge is done via logics. There are
three main components of logic, which are as follows:
• Syntax: It is the sequence of a specific language which should be
followed in order to form a sentence. Syntax is the representation of a
language. Every language has its own syntax.
For example, ax2+bx+c is a well-formed syntax of a quadratic
equation.
What is Logic? (Cont..)
• Semantics: Semantics defines the sense of the sentence which relates
to the real world.
• For example, Indian people celebrate Diwali every year. This
sentence represents the true fact about the country and its people
who are Indians. Therefore, the sentence is syntactically as well as
semantically correct.
• Logical Inference: Inference means to infer or draw some
conclusions about some fact or a problem. Logical inference is
thinking all the possible reasons which could lead to a proper result.
Inference algorithms are used to perform logical inference.
Knowledge Representation
Knowledge-Based Agent: Knowledge-based agents are those agents
who have the capability of maintaining an internal state of
knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge
after observations and take actions.

• Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:

• Knowledge-base and
• Inference system.
Architecture of knowledge-based agent
• The Perception component retrieves data or information from the
environment. Also, it defines how to respond when any sense has been
detected.
• Then, there is the Learning Component that learns from the captured
data by the perception component. In order to learn new things, the
system requires knowledge acquisition, inference, acquisition of
heuristics, faster searches, etc.
• The main component in the cycle is Knowledge Representation and
Reasoning which shows the human-like intelligence in the machines.
Knowledge representation is all about understanding intelligence. Also,
it defines how automated reasoning procedures can make this
knowledge available as needed.
• The Planning and Execution components depend on the analysis of
knowledge representation and reasoning. Here, planning includes giving
an initial state, finding their preconditions and effects, and a sequence of
Types of knowledge
Types of knowledge (Cont..)
• Declarative Knowledge – It includes concepts, facts, and objects and expressed
in a declarative sentence. It provides all the necessary information about the
problem in terms of simple statements, either true or false.
• Structural Knowledge – It is a basic problem-solving knowledge that describes
the relationship between concepts and objects.
• Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible for knowing how to do something
and includes rules, strategies, procedures, etc.
For example: Computer program.
• Meta Knowledge – Meta-knowledge is helpful in enhancing the efficiency of
problem solving through proper reasoning process.
• Heuristic Knowledge – In this type, the knowledge representation is based on the
strategies to solve the problems through the experience of past problems,
compiled by an expert
Issues in Knowledge Representation
• Ambiguity: Information can be interpreted in different ways, leading
to ambiguity in the knowledge representation.
• Example: the word "bank" could refer to a financial institution, a riverbank, or
even the act of tilting to one side. To avoid ambiguity, we need to consider the
surrounding words and the overall context of the.

• Incomplete information:In AI and knowledge representation,

incomplete information can arise when data is missing or when the
system is unable to access all the relevant information
• Example: Consider an AI system that helps doctors diagnose patients. If the
system doesn't have access to a patient's full medical history, it may not be
able to make an accurate diagnosis
• Inconsistency:Inconsistencies in information can arise when data
from different sources conflict with each other.
• Example : Let's say there is an AI system that helps to match job candidates
with open positions. If the system receives conflicting information about a
candidate's skills or work history from different sources, it may have trouble
determining which information is correct. For example, if one reference says a
candidate has excellent communication skills, but another reference says the
candidate struggles to work in teams, the system may have difficulty making
an accurate assessment.

• Complexity:Some domains may be so complex that representing all

the relevant knowledge is difficult. This can be particularly
challenging for AI systems that rely on structured data and require
clear, well-defined relationships between different pieces of
information.
Techniques of knowledge representation
1. Logical Representation
• Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various
conditions
• Logical representation can be categorized into mainly two logics:
• i. Propositional Logic
• ii. Predicate logic
i. Propositional Logic:
• Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the
statements are made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative
statement which is either true or false.
Ex: a) It is Sunday. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
c) 3+3= 7(False proposition) d) 5 is a prime number.
There are two types of Propositions:
• Atomic Propositions : Atomic propositions are the simple
propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol. These are the
sentences which must be either true or false.
Ex: a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

• Compound propositions: Compound propositions are constructed by

combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and
logical connectives.
Ex: a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
• In compound proposition, there are set of symbols we use
¬ Negation (Ex: Today is Not Friday)
V Disjunction (Ex: You should eat Or Watch TV at a time) [PVQ]
∧ Conjunction (Ex: You should eat And Watch TV at a time) [P ∧ Q]
-> if - then (Ex: If there is rain then the roads are wet) [P->Q]
<-> if and only if (Ex: I will go to Mall iff I have to do shopping) [P<-> Q]
P Q ¬P/¬Q PVQ P∧Q P->Q P<-> Q
T T F/F T T T T
T F F/T T F F F
F T T/F T F T F
F F T/T F F T T

EXAMPLE: You can access the internet from campus only if you are cse students or
you are not freshman
P -> (Q V ¬ R)
Limitations of Propositional logic:

• We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with

propositional logic.
Example:
• All the girls are intelligent.
• Some apples are sweet.
Predicate Logic
• Predicate logic can also be called as First Order Logic. It is an
extension of Propositional Logic.
• FOL represents natural language statements in a concise way.
• It is a powerful language used to develop information about an object
and express the relationship between objects.
• FOL not only assumes that does the world contains facts (like PL
does), but it also assumes the following:
1. Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pit, etc.
2. Relations: It is unary relation such as red, round, sister of, brother of, etc.
3. Function: father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, etc.
Predicate Logic
• First-order logic also has two main parts:
i) Syntax ii) Semantics
Atomic and complex sentences in FOL
• Atomic Sentence
• This is a basic sentence of FOL formed from a predicate symbol
followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
• We can represent atomic sentences as a predicate (value1, value2….,
value n).
Complex sentence: These are made by combining atomic sentences
using connectives. It is mainly divided into two part:
• Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.
• Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two
atoms together in a statement.
Example:
Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the
first part x is the subject of the statement and second part "is an integer,"
is known as a predicate.
Quantifiers in First-order logic:
• A quantifier is a language element that allows us to specify how many
objects or entities in a universe meet a certain condition.
• Quantifiers allow us to determine or identify the range and scope of
the variable in a logical expression.
• There are two types of quantifier:
• Universal Quantifier (∀), (for all, for every, everyone,
everything)
• Existential quantifier(∃), (for some, at least one).
Universal Quantifier:
Ex: All man drink coffee.
∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).
• It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential quantifier:
Ex: Some boys are intelligent.
∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)
• It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Note:
• The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.
• The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.
Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:
i) All birds fly.
• In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."
• And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as
follows.
∀ x bird(x) → fly(x).
ii) Every man respects his parent.
• In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and
y= parent.

• Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as

follows:
∀ x man(x) → respects (x, parent).
iii) Some boys play cricket.
• In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y=
game. Since there are some boys so we will use ∃, and it will be
represented as:
∃ x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

iv) Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

• In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and
y= subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation,
so following representation for this:
• ¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].
Free and Bound Variables:
• The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way.
There are two types of variables in First-order logic which are given
below:
• Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it
occurs outside the scope of the quantifier.
Example: ∀ x ∃ (y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.
• Bound Variable: A Variable is said to be a bound variable in a
formula if it occurs within the scope of the quantifier.
Example: ∀ x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound
variables.
 5. All Romans were either loyal to Caesar
Some examples are: or hated him
Ans: ∀x: Roman(x) -> loyalto (x, Caesar)V
1. Marcus was a man hate(x, Caesar)
6. Everyone is loyal to someone:
Ans: man(Marcus)
Ans: ∀x: ∃ y: loyalto (x, y)
2. Marcus was a Pompeian. 7. People only try to assassinate rulers they
Ans: Pompeian(Marcus) are not loyal to.
3. All Pompeian were Romans. Ans: ∀x: ∀y: person(x) ^ ruler(y) ^
Ans: ∀x: Pompeian(x)-> tryassassinate(x,y) -> ¬ loyalto(x, y)
Roman(x) 8. Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.
4. Caesar was a ruler. Ans: tryassassinate (Marcus, Caesar)
9. All men are people
Ans: ruler(Caesar)
Ans: ∀x: man(x)-> person(x)
2. Semantic Network Representation
• A semantic Network is a simple notation scheme for logical
knowledge representation.
• A SN consists of a concepts and relations between concepts.
• Representing a SN with directed graph
• Vertices: denote concepts
• Edges: represent relation between concepts.
Example
• Let us say a simple statement “Bill is taller than John”.
Semantic Networks Relations
For an appropriate scheme:
• Draw relations on the basis of primitives
• Represent complicated relations with this primitives.
Example
Example: Following are some statements which we need to
represent in the form of nodes and arcs.
Statements:
1.Jerry is a cat.
2.Jerry is a mammal
3.Jerry is owned by Priya.
4.Jerry is brown colored.
5.All Mammals are animal.
Drawbacks in Semantic representation:
1.Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we
need to traverse the complete network tree to answer some questions.
It might be possible in the worst case scenario that after traversing the
entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this network.
2.Semantic networks try to model human-like memory to store the
information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast
semantic network.
3.Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link
names.
4.These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the
system.
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If
condition then action". It has mainly three parts:
• The set of production rules
• Working Memory
• The recognize-act-cycle
• Example:
• IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
• IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
• IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
• IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).
Predicate logic-Unification
• Unification is a process of matching and binding the variables in the
predicates or expressions to create a single solution.
Example: P(x,F(y)) -------- 1
P(a, F(g(z))-------- 2
Solution: P[x/a , F(y)/F(g(z))] ----[y=g(z)]
Conditions for unification:
• Atoms or expressions with various predicate symbols can never be
united.
• Both phrases must have the same number of arguments.
• If two similar variables appear in the same expression, unification will
fail.
Algorithm
1.Take two predicates or expressions to unify.
2.Identify the first term in each predicate or expression.
3.If both terms are the same, proceed to the next term. If they are different,
continue to step 4.
4.Check if either term is a variable. If one term is a variable, bind the variable
to the other term. If both terms are variables, choose one of the variables and
bind it to the other variable.
5.Substitute the variable binding into both predicates or expressions.
6.Repeat steps 2 to 5 for each term in the predicates or expressions until all
terms have been compared and unified.
7.If a contradiction is found during unification, terminate the unification
process and return failure.
8.If unification is successful, return the unified predicates or expressions
Example:
Examples
2
Predicate Logic - Resolution
● Resolution method is an inference rule which is used in both
Propositional as well as First-order Predicate Logic in different
ways.
● In resolution method, we use Proof by contradiction technique
to prove the given statement.
● The key idea for the resolution method is to use the knowledge
base and negated goal to obtain null clause (which indicates
contradiction).
● Since the knowledge base itself is consistent, the contradiction
must be introduced by a negated goal.
● As a result, we have to conclude that the original goal is true.
Steps for Resolution
1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic.
2. Convert FOL statements into CNF (Conjunctive Normal Form)
• In First order logic resolution, it is required to convert the FOL into CNF as
CNF form makes easier for resolution proofs.
• Eliminate all implication (→) and rewrite
• Move negation (¬)inwards and rewrite
• Rename variables or standardize variables
• Eliminate existential instantiation quantifier by elimination
• Drop Universal quantifiers
• Distribute conjunction ∧ over disjunction ¬.
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove (proof by contradiction)
4. Draw resolution graph (unification).
Conjunctive Normal Form
• In propositional logic, the resolution method is applied only to those clauses which
are disjunction of literals.
There are following steps used to convert into CNF:
1) Eliminate bi-conditional implication by replacing A ? B with (A ? B) ? (B ?A)
2) Eliminate implication by replacing A -> B with ¬A V B.
3) In CNF, negation(¬) appears only in literals, therefore we move it inwards as:
● ¬ ( ¬A) = A (double-negation elimination
● ¬ (A ^ B) = ( ¬A V ¬B) (De Morgan)
● ¬(A V B) = ( ¬A ^ ¬B) (De Morgan)

4) Finally, using distributive law on the sentences, and form the CNF as:
(A1 V B1) ^ (A2 V B2) ^ …. ^ (An V Bn).
Note: CNF can also be described as AND of ORS
Example:
Let us say:
{Bird(F(x)) V Loves(G(x), x)} and {¬Loves(a, b) V ¬Kills(a, b)}

Eliminate the complementary literals

“Loves(G(x),x) and Loves(a,b))” with ={a/G(x), b/x} to give the following output
clause:
{Bird(F(x)) V ¬Kills(G(x),x)}
The rule applied on the following example is called Binary Resolution as it has solved
exactly two literals. But, binary resolution is not complete. An alternative approach is to
extend the factoring i.e., to remove redundant literals to the first order case. Thus, the
combination of binary resolution and factoring is complete.
Convert each statement into CNF
1. (P->Q) ->Q
= (~P V Q) -> Q [(P->Q) = (~P VQ)]
= ~(~P V Q) V Q
= (~~P ^ ~Q) V Q
= (P ^ ~Q) V Q
= (P V Q) ^ (~Q V Q)

(P V Q)
2. (P -> P) -> R
= ~(~P V P) V R
= (P ^ ~P) V R
= (P V R) ^ (~P V R)

3. (R -> S ) -> ~(S -> Q)

= (~R V S) - > ~(~S V Q)
= ~(~R V S) V ~(~S V Q)
= (R V S) ^ (R V ~Q) ^ (~S V ~Q)
Rules of Inference in Artificial intelligence:
Inference:
Generating the conclusions from evidence and facts is termed
as Inference.
Inference rules:
• Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P →
Q. It is a Boolean expression.
• Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side
proposition goes to the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
• Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can
be represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
• Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P
→ ¬ Q.
Hence from the above truth table, we can prove that
P → Q is equivalent to ¬ Q → ¬ P, and
Q→ P is equivalent to ¬ P → ¬ Q.
Types of Inference rules:
1. Modus Ponens:
• The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of
inference, and it states that if P and P → Q is true, then we can infer
that Q will be true. It can be represented as:
Example:
Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q
Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.

Proof by Truth table:

2. Modus Tollens:
• The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true,
then ¬ P will also true. It can be represented as:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P
Proof by Truth table:
3. Hypothetical Syllogism:
• The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever
P→Q is true, and Q→R is true. It can be represented as the following
notation:

Example:
• Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my
home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my
money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my
money. P→R
Proof by truth table:
4. Disjunctive Syllogism:
• The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P ∨Q is true, and ¬P is true,
then Q will be true. It can be represented as:

Example:
Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q
Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q
Proof by truth-table:
5. Addition:
• The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that
If P is true, then P∨Q will be true.

Example:
Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P
Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)
Proof by Truth-Table:
6. Simplification:
• The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also
be true. It can be represented as:

• Proof by Truth-Table:
7. Resolution:
• The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q ∨R
will also be true. It can be represented as

Proof by Truth-Table:
Forward and Backward Reasoning
• Backward and forward chaining stem from the inference engine
component.
• This is a component in which logical rules are applied to the
knowledge base to get new information or make a decision.
• The backward and forward chaining techniques are used by the
inference engine as strategies for proposing solutions or deducing
information in the expert system.
Forward reasoning:
• Forward chaining is a method of reasoning in artificial intelligence in
which inference rules are applied to existing data to extract additional
data until an endpoint (goal) is achieved.
• In this type of chaining, the inference engine starts by evaluating
existing facts, derivations, and conditions before deducing new
information. An endpoint (goal) is achieved through the manipulation
of knowledge that exists in the knowledge base.
Properties of forward chaining
• The process uses a down-up approach (bottom to top).
• It starts from an initial state and uses facts to make a conclusion.
• This approach is data-driven.
• It’s employed in expert systems and production rule system.
Example:
A
A->B
B
A is the starting point. A->B represents a fact. This fact is used to
achieve a decision B.
A practical example will go as follows;
• Tom is running (A)
• If a person is running, he will sweat (A->B)
• Therefore, Tom is sweating. (B)
Backward chaining:
• Backward chaining is a concept in artificial intelligence that involves
backtracking from the endpoint or goal to steps that led to the
endpoint. This type of chaining starts from the goal and moves
backward to comprehend the steps that were taken to attain this goal.
• The backtracking process can also enable a person establish logical
steps that can be used to find other important solutions.
• Backward chaining can be used in debugging, diagnostics, and
prescription applications.
Properties of backward chaining
• The process uses an up-down approach (top to bottom).
• It’s a goal-driven method of reasoning.
• The endpoint (goal) is subdivided into sub-goals to prove the truth of
facts.
• A backward chaining algorithm is employed in inference engines, game
theories, and complex database systems.
• The modus ponens inference rule is used as the basis for the backward
chaining process. This rule states that if both the conditional statement
(p->q) and the antecedent (p) are true, then we can infer the subsequent
(q).
Example of backward chaining:
• The information provided in the previous example (forward chaining) can
be used to provide a simple explanation of backward chaining. Backward
chaining can be explained in the following sequence.
B
A->B
A
• B is the goal or endpoint, that is used as the starting point for backward
tracking. A is the initial state. A->B is a fact that must be asserted to
arrive at the endpoint B.
A practical example of backward chaining will go as follows:
• Tom is sweating (B).
• If a person is running, he will sweat (A->B).
• Tom is running (A).