System of

Linear Equation
Lesson 2
By Carlos Hortinela IV
 Linear Equations

Standard Equation Form:

A11 X1 + A12 X2 + A13 X3 = C1
A21 X1 + A22 X2 + A23 X3 = C2
A31 X1 + A32 X2 + A33 X3 = C3

Matrix Form:
[A] [x] = [C]
 Linear Equations

Techniques in evaluating system of linear equations

A. Direct Methods
1. Conventional Methods
2. Determinants
3. Inverse Matrices
4. Gaussian-hybrid techniques
5. Matrix Decomposition
 Linear Equations

Techniques in evaluating system of linear equations

B. Iterative methods
1. Gauss-Jacobi Method
2. Gauss-Seidel Method
 Linear Equations

MATRIX AND DETERMINANTS

Determinants - a square array of numbers enclosed
by two bars and is subjected to mathematical
operation. The elements of which have
corresponding numbers of rows to that of the
columns.
 Linear Equations

Properties of Determinants:
If the value of a single row or column are all 0 then D
= 0.

If two rows or columns are interchanged, the sign of

the determinant is changed
 Linear Equations

Properties of Determinants:
If each element of a row or column of a determinant
can be multiplied by a common factor then the
determinant is multiplied by that number.

If the corresponding rows and columns of a

determinant are interchanged, its value is
unchanged.
 Linear Equations

Properties of Determinants:
If two rows or columns are identical then the
determinant D is equivalent to 0.

If two rows or columns are proportional then the

determinant D is equivalent to 0.
 Linear Equations

Properties of Determinants:
If three determinants D1, D2 and D3 have
corresponding equal elements except for a single
row or column in which the elements at D3 are the
sum of the corresponding elements of D1 and D2 then
D3 = D 1 + D 2
 Linear Equations

Properties of Determinants:
The product of two determinants of the same order
is also a determinant of the same order whose
element in the ith row and jth column is the sum of
the products of the ith row of the first determinant
and the jth column of the second determinant.
 Linear Equations

Properties of Determinants:
The value of a determinant is the algebraic sum of
the products obtained by multiplying each element
of a column or row by its co-factor or signed minor.

+
 Linear Equations

Minor and Cofactors

The Minor of the element Aij in the ith row and jth
column (Mij) in any determinant order formed from
the element remained after isolating the ith row and
jth column.
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The cofactor of the element Aij in any determinant of

order n is that signed minor (Dij) determined by,
 Linear Equations

Ex. Determine the cofactor of the element A13

 Linear Equations

EVALUATION OF DETERMINANTS
Conventional Method is a technique used for 2nd
degree determinants and commonly denoted as
cross product method
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Diagonal Method it is a technique used for 3rd

degree determinants commonly described as the
sum of products of the diagonal leaning \ minus the
sum of products of the diagonal leaning / or
sometimes known as the basket weave method.
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Expansion by Minor Cofactor Method

This technique is used for 3rd degree and higher
degree order of determinants
Expansion by Row

Expansion by Column
 Linear Equations

Expansion by Row
 Linear Equations

Expansion by Column
 Linear Equations

Techniques in Altering the Elements of the

Determinants.
This techniques are used for 3rd degree and higher
degree order of determinants.
Alteration by zero
The element of any row (or column) may be
multiplied by a constant and the result added to the
corresponding element of any other row (or column)
without changing the value of the determinant.
 Linear Equations

Alteration by zero
 Linear Equations

Alteration by zero
 Linear Equations

Pivotal Element Method

1. Select a pivot element except zero.
2. Draw cancellation lines along the row and column
of the pivotal element.
3. Replace the remaining element by subtracting from
the original element, the product of the elements
intersecting the cancellation lines and
perpendicular lines dividing it by the pivot element.
4. Multiply the resulting determinant by the pivot
element along with its corresponding sign of
cofactor.
 Linear Equations

Pivotal Element Method

 Linear Equations

Solutions to linear equations by Cramer’s Rule

A1 X1 + B1 X2 + C1 X3 = Z1
A2 X1 + B2 X2 + C2 X3 = Z2
A3 X1 + B3 X2 + C3 X3 = Z3
 Linear Equations

Solutions to linear equations by Cramer’s Rule

A1 X1 + B1 X2 + C1 X3 = Z1
A2 X1 + B2 X2 + C2 X3 = Z2

Hence,
A3 X1 + B3 X2 + C3 X3 = Z3
 Linear Equations

Ex. Evaluate the unknown Mesh currents using linear

equations by Cramer’s Rule.
-11 = 6 I1 – 2 I2 – 3 I3
12 = – 2 I3 –2 I1 + 5 I2
13 = – 2 I2 –3 I1 + 8 I3
 Linear Equations

MATRIX
It is a rectangular array of numbers or functions
enclosed in a pair of brackets and subject to certain
rules of operation.

where: aij = element of matrix A

mxn = size of order of matrix

Note: m & n may or may not be equal

 Linear Equations

Special Type of Matrices

Row Vector Matrix
A matrix which contains only one row and several
columns.

Column Vector Matrix

A matrix which contains only one column and several
rows.
 Linear Equations

Square Matrix
It is a matrix whose elements have equal number of
rows and columns.

Null or Zero Matrix

It is a square matrix whose elements are all zeros.
 Linear Equations

Diagonal Matrix
It is a square matrix wherein the values lie in the
main diagonal and the rest are all zeros.

Unity or Identity Matrix

It is a square matrix whose elements in the main
diagonal are all 1’s and the rest are all zeros.
 Linear Equations

Symmetric Matrix
It is a square matrix whose element Aij is equal to
the element Aji or the elements of the rows
corresponds to that of the column.

Skew Matrix
It is a square matrix whose element Aij is equal to
the negative of the element Aji.
 Linear Equations

Singular Matrix
It is a square matrix whose determinant value is
equivalent to 0.

Non-singular Matrix
It is a square matrix whose determinant value is not
equivalent to 0.
 Linear Equations

MATRIX LAWS

1. A + B = B + A
(Matrix addition is commutative)
2. A + 0 = 0 + A = A
(0 is the zero for matrix addition)
3. A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0
(-A is the negative of A)
4. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(Matrix addition is associative)
5. (sA)B = A (sB) = s(AB)
(Scalars can be moved through products)
 Linear Equations

MATRIX LAWS

6. For Amxn, ImA = Ain = A

(I is the identity for matrix multiplication)
7. (A + B)C = AC + BC
(Right distributive law)
8. A(B + C) = AB + AC
(Left distributive law)
9. A(BC) = (AB) C
(Matrix multiplication is associative)
 Linear Equations

MATRIX OPERATION
In matrix operation, only addition, subtraction, and
multiplication are defined. Division is done by a
different technique.

Addition / Subtraction
-two matrices may be conformable to
addition/subtraction, if and only if the size of the two
matrices are equal.
Amxn + Bmxn = Cmxn
 Linear Equations

Addition/Subtraction
 Linear Equations

Multiplication
a. Scalar multiplication is done by multiplying the
scalar element to each element in the matrix.
 Linear Equations

Multiplication
b. By another matrix
-two matrices can be multiplied if the number of
column (left hand) of the first matrix is equal to the
number of row (right hand) of the second matrix.
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Multiplication
b. By another matrix
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Division
Inverse of a matrix

where: DetA = determinant value of a matrix

AT = transpose of a matrix
adj = adjoint of a matrix
Note: Division operation is not conformable to
matrices of unequal rows & columns. Hence, this
operation is restricted to square matrices only.
 Linear Equations

Transpose of a matrix ( AT )
-to determine the transpose of a matrix, interchange
the corresponding rows and columns of the given
determinant.
 Linear Equations

Adjoint of a Matrix (Adj)

-to obtain the adjoint of any matrix, replace each
element in the matrix by its respective co-factor.
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Adjoint of a Matrix (Adj)

 Linear Equations

Inverse of a Matrix
 Linear Equations

Row-by-Row transformation
- to interchange the elements of the given matrix
with that of the unity matrix, apply a determinant
technique similar to alteration by zero (i.e. making
the element of the main diagonal 1’s and the rest
0’s).
 Linear Equations

Row-by-Row transformation
 Linear Equations

Row-by-Row transformation
 Linear Equations

Matrix Decomposition
A. Crout’s / Cholesky’s Method
 Linear Equations

Matrix Decomposition
B. Doolittle’s Method
Linear Equations
 Linear Equations

Example: Determine the unknown mesh currents

using Crout’s Method.
-11 = 6 I1 – 2 I2 – 3 I3
12 = – 2 I3 –2 I1 + 5 I2
13 = – 2 I2 –3 I1 + 8 I3
 Linear Equations

GAUSS-JORDAN METHODS

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

To obtain the values of the unknown variables in a
given linear equation: plot the constants along with
the coefficients of the unknown variables and then
apply row-by-row transformation to change the given
matrix to a unity matrix thus, altering the value of
the constants yielding the values of the unknown
variables.
 Linear Equations

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
A11 X1 + A12 X2 + A13 X3 = C1
A21 X1 + A22 X2 + A23 X3 = C2
A31 X1 + A32 X2 + A33 X3 = C3
 Linear Equations

Example: Determine the unknown mesh currents

using Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method.
-11 = 6 I1 – 2 I2 – 3 I3
12 = – 2 I3 –2 I1 + 5 I2
13 = – 2 I2 –3 I1 + 8 I3
 Linear Equations

Gauss-Jordan Reduction Method

To obtain the values of the unknown variables in a
given linear equation: plot the constants along with
the coefficients of the unknown variables and then
apply alteration by zero producing simplified
equations to solve for the unknown variables. Then it
is reverted back to equation format and the
unknown variables solved using reverse substitution.
 Linear Equations

Gauss-Jordan Reduction Method

A11 X1 + A12 X2 + A13 X3 = C1
A21 X1 + A22 X2 + A23 X3 = C2
A31 X1 + A32 X2 + A33 X3 = C3
 Linear Equations

Example: Determine the unknown mesh currents

using Gauss-Jordan Reduction Method.
-11 = 6 I1 – 2 I2 – 3 I3
12 = – 2 I3 –2 I1 + 5 I2
13 = – 2 I2 –3 I1 + 8 I3