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Arguments

The document discusses logical implication, defining it as a relation where one proposition is true whenever another is true. It introduces arguments, validity, and rules of inference in propositional logic, emphasizing the importance of tautologies and contradictions. Additionally, it covers common fallacies and the equivalence of conditional statements and their contrapositives.

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26 views29 pages

Arguments

The document discusses logical implication, defining it as a relation where one proposition is true whenever another is true. It introduces arguments, validity, and rules of inference in propositional logic, emphasizing the importance of tautologies and contradictions. Additionally, it covers common fallacies and the equivalence of conditional statements and their contrapositives.

Uploaded by

christine.gomez200216
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ARGUMENTS

Math 221 – Logic and Set Theory


Logical Implication
Definition:
A proposition is said to logically imply a proposition , written

if is true whenever is true.


Remarks:
Consider the symbols and .
Note that

is just a proposition and that its truth table could contain either T
or F in its last column.
But,

defines a relation in composite propositions which states that the


composite proposition contains only T in the last column of its
truth table, i.e. is a tautology.
Example:
Claim:
Proof:
Observe that is true in Cases (rows) 1 and 2, and in these cases is
also true. Therefore, .
Theorem (*):
Let and be propositions. Then the following three conditions are
equivalent:
(1) is a tautology.
(2) is a contradiction
(3) is a tautology.
Remarks:
(1) if one of the conditions in Theorem (*) holds.
(2) Statement (1) can be used as an alternative definition of
logically imply (Schaum’s, 1st Edition).
Example:
(1)
Proof: is a tautology.
Example:
(2)
Proof: Consider the truth table of .
Note that is a contradiction. Therefore,
Theorem:
The relation in propositions defined by

is reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive, that is:


(1) .
(2) If and , then .
(3) If and , then .
Arguments
Definition:
An argument is an assertion that a given set of propositions ,
called premises, yields (has as a consequence) another
proposition , called the conclusion. Such an argument is denoted
by

Definition:
An argument is said to be valid if is true whenever all the
premises are true. An argument which is not valid is called a
fallacy.
Examples:
1. Consider the following argument:
: Some animals can reason.
: Man is an animal.
……………………………..
: Man can reason.
Examples:
2. Consider the following argument:
: Babies are illogical.
: Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.
: Illogical people are despised.
…………………………………………………………
: Babies cannot manage crocodiles.
Examples:
3. Consider the following arguments.
Some students are lazy.
All males are lazy.
…………………………
Some students are males.
Examples:
4. Consider the following arguments.
All students are lazy.
Nobody who is wealthy is a student.
………………………………………
Lazy people are not wealthy.
Examples:
5. Consider the following arguments.
No student is lazy.
John is an artist.
All artists are lazy.
……………………
John is not a student.
Examples:
6. Consider the following arguments.
“If you have a current password, then you can log onto the
network”
“You have a current password.”
Therefore,
“You can log onto the network.”
Remarks:
1. Note that the truth value of an argument does not depend upon
the particular truth value of each of the statements in the
argument.
2. An argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for all
premises to be true and the conclusion to be false.

Theorem:
The argument is valid if and only if the proposition is a
tautology.
Remark:
Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic

Modus Ponens Hypothetical Syllogism


(Direct Reasoning) (Transitive Reasoning)

Modus Tollens Disjunctive Syllogism


(Contrapositive Reasoning)
Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic

Addition Conjunction

Simplification Resolution
Using Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
Example:
Show that the premises
“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday”,
“We will go swimming only if it is sunny”,
“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip”, and
“If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset”
lead to the conclusion
“We will be home by sunset”.
Solution:
Let : It is sunny this afternoon.
: It is colder than yesterday.
: We will go swimming.
: We will take a canoe trip.
: We will go swimming.
Step Reason
1. Premise
2. Simplification using (1)
3. Premise
Step Reason
1. Premise
2. Simplification using (1)
3. Premise
4. Modus tollens using (2) and (3)
5. Premise
6. Modus ponens using (4) and (5)
7. Premise
8. Modus ponens using (6) and (7)
Common Fallacies
These fallacies resemble rules of inference, but are based on
contingencies rather than tautologies.
Fallacy of Affirming the Conclusion

Example:
If you do every problem in this book, then you will learn logic
and set theory. You learned logic and set theory. Therefore, you
did every problem in this book.
Fallacy of Denying the Hypothesis
Rules of Inference for Quantifies Statements

Let be a propositional function on a set . Then each of the


following arguments is valid.
Universal Instantiation:
Existential Instantiation:
Example:
: All men are mortal.
: Socrates is a man.
………………………..
: Socrates is mortal
Let be the set of men, let be “ is mortal”, and let denote Socrates. Then,
:
:
……………………
:)
Therefore, by the universal instantiation, the given argument is valid.
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS AND VARIATIONS
Theorem:
A conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically
equivalent.

Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

T T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T
Example:
1. Consider the following statements about a triangle .
: If is equilateral, then is isosceles.
: If is isosceles, then is equilateral.
Note that is true, but is false.
Example:
2. Prove.
: If is odd then is odd.
Proof:
Show that the contrapositive , that is, “If is even, then is
even”, is true.
Let be even, then when . Hence, is also even. Since the
contrapositive is true, the original conditional statement is also
true.

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