Network layer

Addressing the Network

IP
Routing
1
2
 Network layer
TCP UDP Transport
Layer
 This layer deals with
Packets (Data
Bundles) ICMP IP IGMP Network
Layer
 Responsible for logical
addressing and ARP
Network
Access Data Link Layer
routing
 Devices Media
 IP – Internet Protocol (Provide packet
 Routers, Layer 3
delivery)
Switches, Firewalls.. Etc.
 ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
 Network Layer (Defined the procedure of network
Protocols address / mac address translation)
 ICMP, IGMP, ARP, IP,  ICMP – Internet Control Message
RIP, IGRP.. Etc. Protocol (Defined the procedure of
error message transfer)
3
Network layer
 Routes the information in the network
 E.g. IP is a network layer implementation which
defines addresses in such a way that route
selection can be determined.
 Single address space for the entire internetwork
 adds an additional layer of addressing, e.g. IP
address, which is different from MAC address.

4
Network layer
 Unreliable (best effort)
 if packet gets lost, network layer doesn’t care for higher layers can resend
lost packets
 Forwards packets hop by hop
 encapsulates network layer packet inside data link layer frame
 different framing on different underlying network types
 receive from one link, forward to another link
 There can be many hops from source to destination
 Makes routing decisions
 how can the packet be sent closer to its destination?
 forwarding and routing tables embody “knowledge” of network topology
 routers can talk to each other to exchange information about network
topology

5
 Addressing the Network IPv4

6
IP Address
 What is an IP address?
 An IP address is a unique global address for a
network interface
 E.g. IPv4, IPv6
 IPV6 provides a platform on new internet
functionality that will be needed in the immediate
future and provide flexibility for future growth
and expansion
 An IPv4 address is 32 bits long
 The IPv4 addresses are unique and universal.

7
IP Addresses

8
IP Address
 The address space of IPv4 is 232 or
4,294,967,296.

9
Classful addressing
 In classful addressing, the address space is
divided into five classes; A, B, C, D, and E .
 Easy to work out but very wasteful.
 Routers and hosts still assume class subnet
masks by default
 Class A /8 255.0.0.0
 Class B /16 255.255.0.0
 Class C /24 255.255.255.0

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Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation

11
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.

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3 types of address
 Every network has:
 Network address – the first one
 Broadcast address – the last one
 Host addresses – everything in between

14
 IP addressing

A 10. 17. 53. 60

network part host part

B 172. 16. 38. 201

network part host part

C 192. 168. 21. 17

network part host part

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IP addressing
 Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete,
is replaced with classless addressing.
 In IPv4 addressing, a block of
addresses can be defined as:
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses
and the /n defines the mask.

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IPv4 address

192. 168. 21. 17

11000000 10101000 00010101 00010001

octet octet octet octet

network part host part

Prefix /24 Subnet mask:
255. 255. 255. 0
11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

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Find the network address

192. 168. 21. 17

11000000 10101000 00010101 00010001

In a network address, all the host bits are 0.

192. 168. 21. 0
11000000 10101000 00010101 00000000

The router needs to do this for every packet.

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Logical AND

192. 168. 21. 17

11000000 10101000 00010101 00010001

255. 255. 255. 0

11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

192. 168. 21. 0

11000000 10101000 00010101 00000000

Do a logical AND at each position

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Find the broadcast address

192. 168. 21. 17

11000000 10101000 00010101 00010001

In a broadcast address, all the host bits are 1.

192. 168. 21. 255
11000000 10101000 00010101 11111111

The broadcast is the last address in the network.

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Classless addressing
 Any suitable prefix can be used
 More flexible, less wasteful.

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22
 Classless addressing /16
 172.16.0.0/16 mask 255.255.0.0
 Broadcast address 172.16.255.255

172. 16. 0. 0
10101100 00010000 00000000 00000000
 Hosts 172.16.0.1 to 172.16.255.254
 65534 host addresses

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 Classless addressing /24
 172.16.0.0/24
 mask 255.255.255.0
 Broadcast address 172.16.0.255
172. 16. 0. 0
10101100 00010000 00000000 00000000

 Hosts 172.16.0.1 to 172.16.0.254

 254 host addresses

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Classless addressing /22
 172.16.0.0/22
 mask 255.255.252.0

172. 16. 0. 0
10101100 00010000 00000000 00000000
 Broadcast address 172.16.3.255
 Hosts 172.16.0.1 to 172.16.3.254
 1022 host addresses

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Classless addressing /26

 172.16.0.0/26
 mask 255.255.255.192

172. 16. 0. 0
10101100 00010000 00000000 00000000
 Broadcast address 172.16.0.63
 Hosts 172.16.0.1 to 172.16.0.62
 62 host addresses

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 Classless addressing /28

 172.16.0.0/28 mask 255.255.255.240

 Broadcast address 172.16.0.15

172. 16. 0. 0
10101100 00010000 00000000 00000000
 Hosts 172.16.0.1 to 172.16.0.14
 14 host addresses

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Calculating addresses
 A host has IP address 192.168.1.70/24
 What is the subnet mask?
 What is the network address?
 What is the broadcast address?
 What is the range of host addresses in the
network?

28
192.168.1.70/24 – fill in the table

Last octet Last octet Full

binary decimal
Host
Subnet mask
Network
Broadcast
First host
Last host
29
192.168.1.70/24

Last octet Last octet Full

binary decimal
Host 01000110 70 192.168.1.70
Subnet mask 00000000 0 255.255.255.0
Network 00000000 0 192.168.1.0
Broadcast 11111111 255 192.168.1.255
First host 00000001 1 192.168.1.1
Last host 11111110 254 192.168.1.254
30
Calculating addresses
 A host has IP address 192.168.1.70/26
 What is the subnet mask?
 What is the network address?
 What is the broadcast address?
 What is the range of host addresses in the
network?

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192.168.1.70/26 fill in the table

Last octet Last octet Full

binary decimal
Host
Subnet mask
Network
Broadcast
First host
Last host
32
192.168.1.70/26

Last octet Last octet Full

binary decimal
Host 01000110 70 192.168.1.70
Subnet mask 11000000 192 255.255.255.192
Network 01000000 64 192.168.1.64
Broadcast 01 111111 127 192.168.1.127
First host 01000001 65 192.168.1.65
Last host 01 111110 126 192.168.1.126
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Calculating addresses
 A host has IP address 192.168.1.70/28
 What is the subnet mask?
 What is the network address?
 What is the broadcast address?
 What is the range of host addresses in the
network?

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192.168.1.70/28 fill in the table

Last octet Last octet Full

binary decimal
Host
Subnet mask
Network
Broadcast
First host
Last host
35
192.168.1.70/28

Last octet Last octet Full

binary decimal
Host 01000110 70 192.168.1.70
Subnet mask 11110000 240 255.255.255.240
Network 01000000 64 192.168.1.64
Broadcast 01001111 79 192.168.1.79
First host 01000001 65 192.168.1.65
Last host 01001110 78 192.168.1.78
36
 Unicast, Multicast,
Broadcast

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Unicast, Multicast, Broadcast
 Unicast – a message addressed to one host
 Broadcast – a message addressed to all hosts
on a network. Uses network’s broadcast
address or 255.255.255.255 locally
 Multicast – a message addressed to a group of
hosts. Uses an address starting 224 - 239

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Private IP addresses
 Unrestricted use on private networks. Not
routed across the Internet.
 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8)
 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/20)
 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
(192.168.0.0/24)

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Public IP addresses
 Routed over the Internet
 Master holder is IANA
 Assigned to regional registries and then to
ISPs
 ISPs allocate them to organisations and
individual users
 Use is strictly controlled as duplicate
addresses are not allowed

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 Special addresses
 0.0.0.0 “all addresses” in default route. Hosts
cannot be given addresses starting 0.
 127.0.0.1 is loopback. Hosts cannot be given
addresses starting 127.
 240.0.0.0 and higher – reserved for experimental
purposes.
 169.254.0.0 - 169.254.255.255 local only
 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 for teaching

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Network address translation
 A large number of hosts on a network use private
addresses to communicate with each other.
 The ISP allocates one or a few public addresses.
 NAT allows the hosts to share the public
addresses when they want to use the Internet

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Addressing hosts
 Static addressing
 Address is configured by an administrator
 Servers, printers, routers, switches need static
addresses
 Dynamic addressing
 Address is allocated automatically by DHCP by
leasing addresses from a pool
 Dynamic addressing is best for workstations

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 Subnetting

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Problems
 IPv4 address scheme is limited by its 32 bits problems

for the long-term growth of the Internet

 The global internet routing table is huge and continues

to grow

go beyond the capacity of routers

 What if you want to break your big network into

many smaller networks?

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Solutions
 Subnet masking
 Variable-length subnet masks
 Route summarization
 Classless interdomain routing
 Network address translation
 Address allocation for private internet

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 solution 1: get netids for all groups; impossible
 solution 2: allow a network to be split into several parts
for internal use but still act like a single network to the
outside world (three levels of hierarchy: site, subnet,
host)

a campus network consisting of LANs for various departments

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Subnetting
 Split the host number portion of an IP address
into a subnet number and a (smaller) host
number.
 Result is a 3-layer hierarchy
network prefix host number

network prefix subnet number host number

extended network prefix

 Then:
 Subnets can be freely assigned within the organization
 Internally, subnets are treated as separate networks
 Subnet structure is not visible outside the organization

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 Subnetting
router

Subnet 1 Subnet 2 Subnet 3

128.213.1.x 128.213.2.x 128.213.3.x

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Subneting
 Networks divided into subnets thus:
 saving IP address spaces
 reduce broadcasting
 use the network address more efficient

 Done by reserving bits from host address

 Any number of bits can be borrowed as long as
two bits remain.

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 Subnet Masking

Some of the benefits of

subnetting include:
• Reduced network traffic
• Optimized network performance
• Simplified management
51
Subnetting
 Subnets can simplify routing.
 IP subnet broadcasts have a hostID of all 1s.
 It is possible to have a single wire network with
multiple subnets.

52
How to Create a Subnet

 To create subnetworks, you take bits from the host portion

of the IP address and reserve them to define the subnet

address.
 This means fewer bits for hosts, so the more subnets, the
fewer bits available for defining hosts.

53
 Steps Followed
 Determine the number of required network IDs:
 One for each subnet
 One for each wide area network connection
 Determine the number of required host IDs per subnet:
 One for each TCP/IP host
 One for each router interface
 Based on the above requirements, create the following:
 One subnet mask for your entire network
 A unique subnet ID for each physical segment
 A range of host IDs for each subnet

54
 Subnet Masks
 subnet mask is 32-bit value that allows the recipient of IP
packets to distinguish the network ID portion of the IP
address from the host ID portion of the IP address.
 When assigning addresses you set both the IP address
and subnet mask.
 Not all networks need subnets, meaning they use the
default subnet mask.
 Default subnet mask is found by setting all network
address to 1 for each class.

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Restrictions on borrowed bits
 Reserved addresses

 all 0’s= network address, all 1’s broadcast address

 Minimum of 2 bits borrowed from host portion

 Minimum of 2 bits left for host portion

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 The Fast Way
 Before starting, you need to do is answer five simple
questions:

1. How many subnets does the chosen subnet

mask produce?

2. How many valid hosts per subnet are available?

3. What are the valid subnets?

4. What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?

5. What are the valid hosts in each subnet?

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1. How many subnets?
 2x = number of subnets. x is the number of masked bits,
or the 1s.
 For example, given a class C subnet mask of
255.255.255.192, the number of ones gives us 22 = 4
subnets.
 Note that we only count the number of ones that are found
in the host part of the subnet mask.
 For class C address 255.255.255.0 is the default subnet,
192=11000000 in binary, so there are only 2 ones.

58
2. How many hosts per subnet?
 2y – 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number
of unmasked bits, or the 0s. For example, in 11000000,
the number of zeros gives us 26 – 2 = 62 hosts per subnet.
 You need to subtract two for the subnet address and
the broadcast address, which are not valid hosts.
3. What are the valid subnets?
 First calculate the block size.
 256 – subnet mask = block size, or increment number.
 An example would be 256 – 192 = 64. The block size of
a 192 mask is always 64.
 Second, start counting at zero in blocks of 64 until you
reach the subnet mask value and these are your
subnets. 0, 64, 128, 192.

59
4. What’s the broadcast address for each subnet?
 Since we counted our subnets in the last section as 0,
64, 128, and 192, the broadcast address is always the
number right before the next subnet.
 For example, the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63
because the next subnet is 64. The 64 subnet has a
broadcast address of 127 because the next subnet is
128, etc.
 And remember, the broadcast of the last subnet is
always 255 for Class C.

60
5. What are the valid hosts?
 Valid hosts are the numbers between the
subnets, omitting all the 0s and all 1s.
 For example, if 64 is the subnet number and 127
is the broadcast address, then 65–126 is the valid
host range—it’s always the numbers between the
subnet address and the broadcast address.
 These are the addresses you assign to nodes.

61
Example 1
 We’re going to subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and
subnet mask 255.255.255.224.
1. How many subnets?
 224 is 11100000, so our equation would be 2 3 = 8.

2. How many hosts?

 25 – 2 = 30.

3. What are the valid subnets?

 256 – 224 = 32. We just start at zero and count to the subnet
mask value in blocks (increments) of 32: 0, 32, 64, 96, 128,
160, 192, 224.
4. What’s the broadcast address for each subnet?
 always the number right before the next subnet

5. What are the valid hosts?

 the numbers between the subnet number and the broadcast
62
address
To answer questions 4 and 5, first just write out the subnets,
then write out the broadcast addresses— the number right
before the next subnet. Lastly, fill in the host addresses.
 So now we have
 192.168.10.1/27 – 192.168.10.30/27 ntk 1
 192.168.10.33/27 - 192.168.10.62/27 ntk 2
upto …
 192.168.10.225/27 - 192.168.10.254/27 ntk 8

63
 Example 2
Subnetting 192.168.1.0/24

Last octet binary

Address 192.168.1.0 00000000

Subnet mask 255.255.255.0 00000000

Borrow 1 bit from host part, give it to network part, /25

Addresses 192.168.1.0 00000000

192.168.1.128 10000000
Subnet mask 255.255.255.128 10000000

64
Subnetting 192.168.1.0/24

Borrow 2 bits from host part, give to network part, /26

Addresses 192.168.1.0 00000000
192.168.1.64 01000000
192.168.1.128 10000000
192.168.1.192 11000000
Subnet mask 255.255.255.192 11000000

65
Subnetting 192.168.1.0/24

Borrow 3 bits from host part, give to network part, /27

Addresses 192.168.1.0 00000000
192.168.1.32 00100000
192.168.1.64 01000000
192.168.1.96 01100000
192.168.1.128 10000000
192.168.1.160 10100000
192.168.1.192 11000000
192.168.1.224 11100000
Subnet mask 255.255.255.224 11100000

66
 Subnetting 192.168.1.0/24

Borrow 4 bits from host part, give to network part, /28

192.168.1.0 192.168.1.128 00000000 10000000
192.168.1.16 192.168.1.144 00010000 10010000
192.168.1.32 192.168.1.160 00100000 10100000
192.168.1.48 192.168.1.176 00110000 10110000
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.192 01000000 11000000
192.168.1.80 192.168.1.208 01010000 11010000
192.168.1.96 192.168.1.224 01100000 11100000
192.168.1.112 192.168.1.240 01110000 11110000

Subnet mask 255.255.255.240 11110000

And so on…
67
Subnetting 192.168.1.0/24

Bits borrowed 1 2 3 4 5 6

No of networks 2 4 8 16 32 64

Prefix /25 /26 /27 /28 /29 /30

Bit value/ 128 64 32 16 8 4

network size
No of hosts 126 62 30 14 6 2

Subnet mask 128 192 224 240 248 252

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Subnetting 192.168.1.0/24
 Every time you borrow another bit you:
 Double the number of subnets
 Halve the size of the subnets
 Each subnet has a network address, a
broadcast address, and everything in between
is a host address.

69
 Exercises
 Do full subnetting for the following addresses.

1. 192.168.10.0/28

2. 192.0.10.0/30

3. 192.1.1.0/25

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 An organization is granted the block
130.34.12.64/26. The organization needs
four subnetworks, each with an equal
number of hosts. Design the subnetworks
and find the information about each
network.

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72
An organization is granted a block of addresses with the
beginning address 14.24.74.0/24. The organization needs
to have 3 subblocks of addresses to use in its three
subnets as shown below:
❑ One subblock of 120 addresses.
❑ One subblock of 60 addresses.
❑ One subblock of 10 addresses.
Solution
There are 232 − 24 = 256 addresses in this block. The first
address is 14.24.74.0/24; the last address is
14.24.74.255/24.
a. The number of addresses in the first subblock is not a
power of 2. We allocate 128 addresses. The subnet
mask is 25. The first address is 14.24.74.0/25; the last
address is 14.24.74.127/25.
73
b. The number of addresses in the second subblock is
not a power of 2 either. We allocate 64 addresses. The
subnet mask is 26. The first address in this block is
14.24.74.128/26; the last address is 14.24.74.191/26.
c. The number of addresses in the third subblock is not
a power of 2 either. We allocate 16 addresses. The
subnet mask is 28. The first address in this block is
14.24.74.192/28; the last address is 14.24.74.207/28.
d. If we add all addresses in the previous subblocks, the
result is 208 addresses, which means 48 addresses
are left in reserve. The first address in this range is
14.24.74.209. The last address is 14.24.74.255.
e. Figure shows the configuration of blocks. We have
shown the first address in each block.

74
75
Assume a company has three offices: Central, East,
and West. The Central office is connected to the
East and West offices via private, WAN lines. The
company is granted a block of 64 addresses with
the beginning address 70.12.100.128/26. The
management has decided to allocate 32 addresses
for the Central office and divides the rest of
addresses between the two other offices.

76
77
 Exercise
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with
190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers
as follows:
❑ The first group has 64 customers; each needs
approximately 256 addresses.
❑ The second group has 128 customers; each needs
approximately 128 addresses.
❑ The third group has 128 customers; each needs
approximately 64 addresses.
We design the subblocks and find out how many
addresses are still available after these allocations.

78