Lecture # 9

February 18, 2025

 Physical Layer
 The signals can be analog or digital.
 An analog signal takes many values; a digital signal takes a limited
number of values as shown in Figure

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Analog Signals
 An analog signal can take one of two forms:
 Periodic
 A periodic (nonperiodic)

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 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a
periodic analog signal.
 A sine wave can be represented by three parameters:
1. Period
2. Peak Amplitude
3. Phase

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 Peak Amplitude:
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity.
For electrical signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.
 Period and Frequency:
 The period (T ) refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to
complete one cycle. The frequency ( f ), measured in hertz (Hz), refers to the
number of periods in 1 s.

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 Phase
 The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. If
we think of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward
along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the
status of the first cycle. Phase is measured in degrees or radians (360° is 2π
rad).
 Wavelength
 The term wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a
transmission medium. The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can
travel in one period. The wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a
simple sine wave to the propagation speed in the medium.

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 While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the
wavelength depends on both the frequency and the medium. The
wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation speed of
the medium and the frequency of the signal. If we represent
wavelength by λ, propagation speed by c, and frequency by f, we get

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 Time Domain Plot Vs Frequency Domain Plot

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 Composite signal
 A composite signal is made up of many simple sine waves.

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 Bandwidth
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

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Digital Signals
 In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can
also be represented by a digital signal. For example, a value 1 can be
encoded as a positive voltage and a value 0 as zero voltage. A digital
signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more
than 1 bit for each level.

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Bit Rate
 Bit rate (or data rate) is the number of bits transmitted per second in
a communication system. It is measured in bits per second (bps).
 Bit Rate=Number of bits/Time in seconds

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Factors Affecting Bit Rate
1. Bandwidth – Higher bandwidth allows more data to be transmitted.
2. Encoding Scheme – More efficient encoding increases bit rate.
3. Noise & Interference – More noise reduces bit rate.

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Example
 Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100
pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
 A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume
that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is?

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Bit Length
 We discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the
distance one cycle occupies on the transmission medium. We can
define something similar for a digital signal: the bit length.
 The bit length is the distance 1 bit occupies on the transmission
medium.

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Example
 Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100
pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
 A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume
that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is?
 Bit Length?

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Transmission of Digital Signals
 Digital signals are transmitted as discrete pulses (0s and 1s) over a
communication medium. The transmission can be done in two
primary ways:
1. Baseband Transmission
2. Broadband Transmission (Modulated)

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Baseband transmission
 The digital signal is directly transmitted over the medium without any
modulation.
 It requires the entire bandwidth of the channel.
 Common in LANs (Ethernet) and wired networks.
 Example: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) uses baseband transmission.

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What is Modulation?
 Modulation is the process of modifying a carrier signal (such as a
radio wave) to carry information (such as voice, video, or data). It
helps in transmitting signals over long distances without distortion or
interference.

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Types of Modulation
 Analog Modulation: Used for radio and TV broadcasting.
 Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varies the signal strength (e.g., AM Radio).
 Frequency Modulation (FM): Varies the signal frequency (e.g., FM Radio).
 Phase Modulation (PM): Varies the signal phase.
 Digital Modulation: Used in modern communication (WiFi, 4G, 5G, etc.).
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) (Used in WiFi & LTE)
In WiFi, QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is used to send digital
data by changing both amplitude and phase of the radio wave.

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Broadband Transmission (Modulated)
 The digital signal is converted into an analog signal using modulation.
 Multiple signals can share the same medium using techniques like Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM).
 Used in cable TV, DSL, and wireless networks.
 Example: DSL modems use broadband transmission over telephone lines.

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Lecture # 10
February 20, 2025
Signal Impairment
 Signal impairment refers to the degradation of a signal as it travels
through a transmission medium. This can lead to errors, data loss, or
poor communication quality. There are three main types of signal
impairments:
1. Attenuation (Loss of Signal Strength)
2. Distortion (Signal Shape Changes)
3. Noise (Unwanted Interference)

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Attenuation (Loss of Signal Strength)
 Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or
composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy in
overcoming the resistance of the medium. To compensate for this
loss, we need amplification.

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 Example: A Wi-Fi signal getting weaker as you move away from the
router.
 Solution: Use amplifiers or repeaters to boost the signal strength.

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 To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the
unit of the decibel. The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths
of two signals or one signal at two different points. Note that the
decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is
amplified. Variables P1 and P2 are the powers of a signal at points 1
and 2, respectively.

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Example
 Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its
power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 = 0.5P1. In this case,
the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

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Distortion (Signal Shape Changes)
 Different frequencies travel at different speeds, causing the signal
shape to change.
 Voice signals over long telephone cables might sound unclear.
 Solution: Use advanced modulation techniques (Adaptive Differential
Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM)) to correct distortions.

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Noise (Unwanted Interference)
 Additional signals mix with the original signal, causing errors.
 Thermal Noise (Caused by random movement of electrons)
 Induced Noise (unwanted electrical interference caused by
external sources like power lines, radio signals, or other
electronic devices.)
 Crosstalk (Signals from one wire interfere with another (e.g., hearing another
phone conversation)).
 Impulse Noise (Sudden, unpredictable noise from sources like lightning or
switching circuits.)
 Solution: Shielded cables, error detection techniques, and noise
filtering.

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Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the power of a signal to the
power of background noise, measured in decibels (dB). A higher SNR
indicates a clearer and stronger signal with less interference.

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dB (Decibel) - A Relative Measurement
 dB is a logarithmic unit that expresses the ratio between two power
levels. It does not have an absolute reference point.
 Usage: Used to compare signal strength, gain, or loss in a system

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Example
 If SNR = 30 dB, What it means?

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dBm (Decibel-milliwatt) - An Absolute Measurement

 dBm is a logarithmic unit that measures power relative to 1 milliwatt

(mW). It is an absolute power level.
 Usage: Used in radio, fiber optics, and Wi-Fi signals to express
absolute signal strength.

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 dB vs dBm
Feature dB (Decibel) dBm (Decibel-milliwatt)

Type of Measurement Relative (Gain/Loss) Absolute (Power Level)

Reference Point No fixed reference 1 mW (milliwatt)

Wi-Fi, RF, fiber optics, cellular

Usage Signal amplification, attenuation, link budgets
networks

Amplifier gain, cable loss (-3 dB means half Wi-Fi signal strength (-30 dBm is
Example
power) stronger than -80 dBm)

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Data Rate Limits
 Data rate limits define the maximum number of bits that can be
transmitted over a communication channel.
 Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

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 There are two fundamental models:
1. Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
2. Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
 For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate.

 Where:
 B = Bandwidth of the channel (in Hz)
 L = Number of discrete signal levels
 log₂(L) = Number of bits per signal level
 Bit Rate (Unit) ?

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 When we increase the number of signal levels, we impose a burden
on the receiver.
 If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily
distinguish between a 0 and a 1.
 If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to
distinguish between 64 different levels.

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Example
 We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless (ideal) channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
 We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

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 Because this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the
number of levels or reduce the bit rate.
 If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the
bit rate is 240 kbps.

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Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
 In real-world scenarios, noise affects transmission. Shannon’s formula
accounts for signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in determining the maximum
channel capacity.

 Where:
 C = Channel capacity (bps)
 B = Bandwidth (Hz)
 SNR = Signal-to-Noise Ratio

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Example
 A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300
Hz) assigned for data communications. The signal-to-noise ratio is
usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

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Example
 We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel
is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
C=?
L=?

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 The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula
tells us how many signal levels we need

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Performance
 One important issue in networking is the performance of the network
—how good is it?
 Bandwidth
 Throughput
 Latency (Delay)
 Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP)
 Jitter

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Bandwidth (Capacity of the Network)
 Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a network link can
transfer in a given time.
 Measured in bits per second (bps), Mbps, or Gbps.
 Example: A 100 Mbps internet connection means the network can
handle up to 100 million bits per second.

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Throughput (Actual Data Transferred)
 Throughput is the actual data transfer rate, which is usually less than
bandwidth due to network congestion, errors, or protocol overhead.
 Also measured in bps, Mbps, or Gbps.
 Example: If you have a 100 Mbps connection but are only
downloading a file at 80 Mbps, your throughput is 80 Mbps (due to
congestion, server limits, etc.).

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Latency (or Delay) (Time Taken for Data to
Travel)
 Latency is the time it takes for data to travel from the sender to the
receiver. It consists of:
 Propagation Delay: Time taken for a signal to travel through a medium.
 Transmission Delay: Time taken to push the entire packet into the network.
 Processing Delay: Time taken by routers/switches to process the data.
 Queuing Delay: Time spent waiting in a queue in routers or switches.

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 Unit: Measured in milliseconds (ms).
 Example: A ping from your computer to a website might take 50 ms,
meaning it takes 50 milliseconds for data to travel to and back from
the destination.

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Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP) (Amount of
Data in Transit)
 The BDP measures how much data can be in transit in the network at
a given time.
 It is the product of bandwidth and latency.
 BDP = Bandwidth × Latency
 Unit: Bits (bps × seconds = bits).

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 Example: A 1 Gbps link with 50 ms latency:
 BDP = 50Mb
 This means 50 Megabits of data can be in transit at any given time.

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Jitter
 Jitter refers to the variation in packet delay (latency) when data is
transmitted over a network.
 In simple words, it's the inconsistency in the time it takes for packets
to reach their destination.

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Jitter
 Jitter is the difference in time delay when sending data over a
network. In simple words, it means some data packets arrive faster
than others, causing disruptions in communication.
 Example:
 Imagine you are on a video call with a friend. If the audio and video lag or
break up, that’s because of jitter—some data packets are delayed, while
others arrive too soon or out of order.

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 How to Reduce Jitter?
 Use a wired connection instead of Wi-Fi.
 Reduce network congestion.
 Use Quality of Service (QoS) settings on your router.

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Lecture # 11
February 25, 2025
Transmission Media
 Transmission media is the path through which data travels from one
device to another. It is categorized into two main types:
1. Guided (Wired) Transmission Media
2. Unguided (Wireless) Transmission Media

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Guided (Wired) Transmission Media
 Guided transmission media use physical cables to transmit data.
These cables guide the signals along a specific path.
 The three main types are:
1. Twisted Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Optical Fiber

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(1) Twisted Pair Cable
 Two insulated copper wires twisted around each other to reduce
electromagnetic interference.
 Types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Common in Ethernet networks.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has extra shielding for better protection against
interference.

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Example: Ethernet cables (Cat5, Cat6, Cat7, Cat8).

Category Speed Bandwidth Shielding

Cat 5 100 Mbps 100 MHz UTP
Cat 6 1 Gbps 250 MHz UTP/STP
Cat 7 10 Gbps 600 MHz STP
Cat 8 25-40 Gbps 2000 MHz STP

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Which One Should You Choose?
 Home Use: Cat5 or Cat6 (Affordable and supports Gigabit speeds).
 Office & Business: Cat6 or Cat7 (Better performance & shielding).
 Data Centers & High-Speed Needs: Cat8 (Supports up to 40 Gbps).

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RJ45 Connector
 RJ45 (Registered Jack 45) is a standard connector used for network
cables, mainly in Ethernet networking.
 Features of RJ45 Connector
 Has 8 pins (8P8C – 8 Position, 8 Contact)
 Used in Ethernet cables (Cat5, Cat6, Cat7, Cat8)

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RJ45 Wiring Standards
 There are two common wiring standards for RJ45 connectors:
1. T568A – Used in some government and older networks
2. T568B – The most commonly used standard in modern networking

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Straight-Through Cable
 Used to connect different types of devices, such as a PC to a switch, or
a router to a switch.
 Uses the same 568A or 568B standard on both ends

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Crossover Cable
 Used to connect similar devices, e.g., PC to PC, Switch to Switch,
Router to Router
 One end follows T568A, the other end follows T568B.

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Console Cable (Rollover Cable)
 Used to configure networking devices (like routers and switches) via
a console port.
 PC (via Serial/USB) to Router’s Console Port
 PC to Switch’s Console Port

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Home Assignment
 Pin Functions in a Straight-Through Cable
 Pin Functions in a Cross Cable
 Pin Functions in a Console Cable

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(2) Coaxial Cable
 A coaxial cable (coax) is a type of electrical cable used for transmitting
signals like TV, internet, and radio.
 It consists of a central conductor, surrounded by an insulator, a
shielding layer, and an outer protective cover.

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Types of Coaxial Cable
Type Usage
RG-6 Used for cable TV, satellite, and internet connections.
RG-59 Used for CCTV and older cable TV connections.
Used for long-distance signals (thicker and less
RG-11
flexible).
RG-8 Used in early Ethernet (ThickNet).

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Home Assignment
 Bandwidth & Speed by Coax Cable Type

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(3) Optical Fiber
 Fiber-optic cable is a high-speed transmission medium that uses light
pulses to carry data instead of electrical signals, making it much faster
and more reliable than copper cables (like coaxial or Ethernet cables).

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 A fiber-optic cable consists of two main parts:
 Core – The inner part where light signals travel.
 Cladding – The outer layer that surrounds the core and keeps the light inside.

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Electrical-to-Light Signal Conversion in Fiber
Optic Cables
 Electrical Signal Input (Data Source):
 The process starts with an electrical signal carrying digital data (0s and 1s)
from a network device like a router or switch.
 Signal Modulation & Conversion:
 The electrical signal is sent to an optical transmitter (LED or laser diode).
 The transmitter converts digital data into pulses of light:
 1 (ON) → A light pulse is emitted.
 0 (OFF) → No light pulse is emitted.

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 Light Transmission through Fiber Optic Cable:
 The light pulses travel through the core of the fiber optic cable via total
internal reflection (TIR).
 The fiber core ensures minimal signal loss and high-speed transmission.
 Light-to-Electrical Signal Conversion at the Receiver:
 At the receiving end, a photodetector (photo-diode or phototransistor)
captures the light pulses.
 It converts the light pulses back into an electrical signal.
 The signal is then decoded into digital data for further processing by
networking devices.

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Key Features of Fiber-Optic Cable
 High Speed: Supports speeds up to 100 Gbps and beyond.
 Long Distance: Can transmit signals over hundreds of kilometers
without significant loss.

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Types of Fiber-Optic Cables
Type Core Size Speed & Distance Common Uses
Long-distance
Up to 100 Gbps over
Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) 8-10 µm communication, Internet
40-100 km
backbone, telecom
Up to 10 Gbps over LANs, data centers, short-
Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) 50-62.5 µm
300-500m distance networking

Single-Mode = Best for long distances, higher cost

Multi-Mode = Best for short distances, lower cost

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Home Assignment
 Why do optical signals used in fiber-optic cables have a
very short wave length?
 Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) & Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF)
 Drawbacks of Fiber-Optics
 Common Fiber-Optic Connectors

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Unguided Media: Wireless
 Unguided media, also known as wireless transmission, uses
electromagnetic waves to transmit data without physical cables.
 It allows communication over long distances and is widely used in
Wi-Fi, satellite, mobile networks, and radio broadcasting.
 Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum for Wireless
Communication

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Radio Waves
 Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and
microwaves, electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3
kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves ranging in
frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
 However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a
better criterion for classification. Radio waves, for the most part, are
omnidirectional.
 When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions.

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 This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned.
 Used in long-range communication.
 Can penetrate walls and obstacles.
 Examples: FM/AM radio, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, TV broadcasting, mobile
networks.

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Microwave
 Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
are called microwaves.
 Microwaves are unidirectional.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore,
wider subbands can be assigned and a high data rate is possible.
 Shorter wavelength than radio waves.
 Requires a line-of-sight for transmission.
 Examples: Satellites, radar, 5G, microwave ovens

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Infrared (IR)
 Shortest range among the three.
 Used for close-range communication.
 Infrared waves (300 GHz to 400 THz) are used for short-range
communication as they cannot penetrate walls, preventing
interference between systems in different rooms.
 This makes them ideal for remote controls and indoor applications.
However, they are ineffective for long-range communication and
outdoor use due to interference from sunlight

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Lecture # 12
February 27, 2025 (BSCE22)
February 28, 2025 (BSEE22)
Digital Transmission
 In digital transmission, we send data in binary form (0s and 1s). But
depending on the type of data, we use different conversion
techniques:
1. Digital-to-Digital Conversion (When Data is Already Digital)
2. Analog-to-Digital Conversion (When Data is Analog)

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(1) Digital-to-Digital Conversion
 Digital-to-digital conversion is the process of encoding digital data into
a digital signal for transmission over a communication medium. This
ensures efficient and accurate data transfer between devices.
 There are three main techniques used for encoding digital data into
digital signals:
1. Line Coding
2. Block Coding
3. Scrambling

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(1) Line Coding
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images,
audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits.
 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the
sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver,
the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.

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Encoding Vs Decoding
 Encoding is the process of converting data into a specific format for
transmission, storage, or processing.
 Decoding is the process of converting the encoded data back to its
original form.

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Data Element Vs Signal Element
 Data Element: The smallest unit of information (such as a bit) that
needs to be transmitted. It represents the actual data being sent.
 Signal Element: The smallest unit of a signal that is used to carry a
data element over a transmission medium.
 In other words, data elements are what we need to send; signal
elements are what we can send. Data elements are being carried;
signal elements are the carriers

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 We define a ratio r which is the number of data elements carried by
each signal element.

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Key Differences
 Data elements are the original information (bits), while signal
elements are the actual electrical or optical signals used to transmit
the data.
 One signal element can represent multiple data elements, depending
on the encoding scheme.
 Efficiency is measured by how many data elements can be packed into
a single signal element.

90
Data Rate Vs Signal Rate
 Data Rate: The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits)
sent in 1s. The unit is bits per second (bps).
 The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate.
 Signal Rate: The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in
1s. The unit is the baud.
 The signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the
baud rate (changes or symbols per second).

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Key Difference
 Data Rate = How many bits are sent per second.
 Signal Rate = How many signal changes occur per second.
 Formula:

 where:
 S = Signal Rate (baud)
 N = Data Rate (bps)
 r = Number of bits per signal (depends on modulation technique)

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Example
 If a system transmits at 100 Mbps using QPSK (2 bits per signal
change), then the signal rate is:

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 One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while
decreasing the signal rate. Increasing the data rate increases the
speed of transmission; decreasing the signal rate decreases the
bandwidth requirement.

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Line Coding Schemes
1. Unipolar NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)
2. Polar NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)
a) Polar NRZ-L (Level)
b) Polar NRZ-I (Invert)
3. Polar RZ (Return to Zero)
4. Manchester Encoding
5. Differential Manchester Encoding
6. Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
7. Pseudoternary Encoding

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(1) Unipolar NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)
 Uses only one voltage level (positive) for 1s and zero voltage for 0s.
 The signal does not return to zero during a bit period.
 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

96
1011001

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(2) Polar NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)
 Uses positive voltage for 1 and negative voltage for 0.

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

98
1011001

99
(2a) Polar NRZ-L (Level)
 Inverts logic, where 0 is +V and 1 is -V.

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

100
1011001

101
(2b) Polar NRZ-I (Invert)
 Only 1 causes a transition, while 0 keeps the previous level.

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

102
1011001

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(3) Polar RZ (Return to Zero)
 Each bit returns to 0 in the middle of the bit period.
 +V for 1, -V for 0, but always returns to 0 after half the bit duration.

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

104
1011001

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(4) Manchester Encoding
 Each bit has a transition:
 1 = High to Low transition (↓)
 0 = Low to High transition (↑)

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

106
1011001

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(5) Differential Manchester Encoding
 Always has a transition in the middle
 1 = No transition at the start.
 0 = Transition at the start.

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

108
 1011001
 Home Assignment

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(6) Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
 0 = No voltage (0V)
 1 = Alternates between +V and –V

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

110
1011001

111
(7) Pseudoternary Encoding
 Pseudoternary is a type of bipolar encoding, similar to AMI (Alternate
Mark Inversion), but with a key difference:
 In AMI, 1s alternate in polarity (+V, -V, +V, -V...), while 0s remain at 0V.
 In Pseudoternary, 0s alternate in polarity (+V, -V, +V, -V...), while 1s remain at
0V.

 Let's say we are sending the binary sequence: 1 0 1 1 0

01

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1011001

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Quiz-3 (From Lecture 9 to 12)

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Lecture # 13
March 4, 2025 (Tuesday)
(BSEE22 & BSCE22)
Quiz-3
Lecture # 14
March 6, 2025 (Thursday): BSCE22
March 7, 2025 (Friday): BSEE22
(2) Analog-to-Digital Conversion
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) is the process of converting
continuous analog signals into discrete digital data.
1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
2. Delta Modulation (DM)
 It involves sampling (taking periodic measurements of the signal),
quantization (assigning numerical values to samples), and encoding
(converting values into binary form).

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(1) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 The most common technique used to change an analog signal to
digital data (digitization) is called pulse code modulation (PCM).
 PCM is widely used in digital audio (e.g., CDs, VoIP) and
telecommunication systems.

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Step-1: Sampling
 Sampling is the process of converting a continuous-time analog signal
into a discrete-time digital signal by measuring its amplitude at
regular intervals.
 According to the Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least
twice the highest frequency (fs​≥2fmax​) of the original analog signal
to avoid information loss.

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Step-2: Quantization
 Each sampled value is mapped to the nearest discrete level within a
finite range.
 More quantization levels → Higher accuracy but requires more bits.
 Example:
 8-bit ADC → 256 levels (2⁸)
 16-bit ADC → 65,536 levels (2¹⁶)

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Step-3: Encoding
 Each quantized value is assigned a binary code so that it can be stored
or transmitted digitally.

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Example
 4-bit ADC → 16 levels

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Example
 We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8
bits per sample?
 The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So
the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as
 Sampling rate = 4000 × 2 = 8000 samples/s
 Bit rate = 8000 × 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 kbps

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(2) Delta Modulation (DM)
 Delta Modulation (DM) is a simplified form of Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM) used for analog-to-digital signal conversion.
 Instead of encoding the exact amplitude of the signal at each sample,
DM encodes only the change in amplitude (increase or decrease).

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Why Use Delta Modulation?
 Simple Implementation: Requires fewer bits per sample compared to
PCM.
 Efficient Bandwidth Usage: Uses only 1-bit per sample (either
increase or decrease).
 Lower Complexity: No need for complex quantization levels.

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 Example
 Consider an analog signal with values:
 1.0𝑉,1.2𝑉,1.5𝑉,1.3𝑉,1.1𝑉,1.0𝑉, Assume a step size (Δ) = 0.2V

Time Analog Value Previous Value Step Direction Transmitted Bit

0 1.0V 1.0V No change 0

1 1.2V 1.0V Increase 1

2 1.5V 1.2V Increase 1

3 1.3V 1.5V Decrease 0

4 1.1V 1.3V Decrease 0

5 1.0V 1.1V Decrease 0

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 If step size decrease from 0.2V to 0.1 V
 Then how many bits are required?

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Real-Time Examples of PCM and Delta Modulation

 PCM is widely used in digital telephone networks, including landline

and VoIP systems.
 Delta Modulation is used in low-bit-rate voice transmission systems,
such as military radios and walkie-talkies, where bandwidth is limited.

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Analog Transmission
 Analog transmission refers to the continuous transfer of signals,
where data is represented as varying electromagnetic waves.
 It is commonly used for audio and video broadcasting, such as
AM/FM radio and analog television.

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Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC)
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) is the process of converting digital
signals (discrete 0s and 1s) into analog signals (continuous
waveforms) so they can be transmitted over an analog medium like
telephone lines or radio waves.

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Types of Digital-to-Analog Modulation Techniques

 There are three primary types of digital-to-analog modulation:

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 In amplitude shift keying (ASK), the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to
create signal elements (The smallest unit of a signal that is used to carry a data
element over a transmission medium)
 Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
 ASK is normally implemented using only two levels. This is referred to as binary
amplitude shift keying (BASK) or on-off keying (OOK).

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 In frequency shift keying (FSK), the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied to represent data.
 Both the peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal
elements.

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 One way to think about binary FSK (BFSK) is to consider two carrier
frequencies. In Figure, we have selected two carrier frequencies, f1
and f2. We use the first carrier frequency if the data element is 0; we
use the second if the data element is 1.

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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 In phase shift keying (PSK), the phase of the carrier signal is varied to
represent data.
 Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase
changes.

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 The simplest PSK is binary BPSK, in which we have only two signal
elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°.

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Comparison Table

Modulation Parameter Used In

ASK Amplitude Variation RFID, Optical Fiber

FSK Frequency Variation Bluetooth, Modems

PSK Phase Variation Wi-Fi, Satellite Communication

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Lecture # 15
March 11, 2025 (Tuesday)
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
 Analog-to-Analog conversion is the process of modifying an analog
signal to fit a particular transmission medium or requirement.
 It is commonly used in modulation techniques, where an analog signal
(such as voice or music) is modulated onto a carrier wave for
transmission over a medium like radio waves.

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Why is Analog-to-Analog Conversion Needed?
 Analog signals cannot be transmitted over long distances without
degradation (noise, attenuation).
 Modulation allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously
using frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
 Helps in efficient use of bandwidth for communication systems like
AM, FM, and PM.

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Types of Analog Modulation
 There are three main types of Analog-to-Analog conversion
techniques:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation (PM)

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Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies
with the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal.
 The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the amplitude
changes to follow variations in the information.

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 As Figure shows, AM is normally implemented by using a simple
multiplier because the amplitude of the carrier signal needs to be
changed according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 Figure also shows the bandwidth of an AM signal. The modulation
creates a bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the modulating
signal and covers a range centered on the carrier frequency.
 However, the signal components above and below the carrier
frequency carry exactly the same information.

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 Application: Used in AM radio broadcasting (e.g., 530 kHz – 1700
kHz), TV Broadcasting

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Frequency Modulation (FM)
 In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the
amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes
correspondingly.

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 Application: Used in FM radio broadcasting (88 MHz – 108 MHz),
Radar

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Phase Modulation (PM)
 In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant, but as
the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the carrier changes
correspondingly.

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Home Assignment
 PM Diagram??

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 Application: Used in Wi-Fi (802.11), Bluetooth and satellite
communications.

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 AM is the Worst for Noise, FM is the Best

Technique Noise Sensitivity Reason

High Noise affects amplitude directly

AM (Worst)

PM Moderate Phase jitter can distort signal

FM (Best) Low Amplitude noise is filtered out

 Thus, AM is the most susceptible to noise, while FM is the best choice

for noise resistance, which is why FM is preferred for high-quality
audio broadcasting (e.g., FM radio).
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