PHY 2427: Renewable Energy Technology

Lesson 1

Course Lecturer: Mr. Mwembe J. T.

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• Energy and development
Course
• Energy consumption
Outline
• World energy demand and future projection
• Energy units
• Earth’s energy resource base
• Non-renewable energy sources
• Renewable energy sources
• Advantages of renewable over conventional technologies
• Energy sustainability and environment
• Radiation characteristics of materials
• Integrated bioenergy systems

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 Energy
• Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country.
• Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:

1. Primary and secondary energy sources

• Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary energy sources are
coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood).
• Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy
stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity.
• Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources; for example
coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity.
• Primary energy can also be used directly.
2. Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
• The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial energy.
• By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.
• The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial
energy.
• Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are
traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural households.
• These are also called traditional fuels.
 Energy
3. Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy
• Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and were in common use
around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy resources, e.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.
• Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large scale use after oil crisis of 1973, are called
non-conventional energy sources, e.g., solar, wind, biomass, etc.
4. Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
• Renewable energy is energy obtained from resources that are essentially inexhaustible.
• Examples of renewables sources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and
hydroelectric power.
• The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the release of harmful
pollutants.
• Non renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuel such as coal, oil and gas which are likely to deplete with
time.
 Energy and development
• All nations of the world envision having sustainable and equitable growth.
• The actualization of sustainable and equitable growth encompasses various securities elements: livelihood,
economy, energy, ecological balance, national defense and internal peace.
• Energy is the prime mover of all these securities and has now become the essential component of
economic development and social transformation for all the developed and developing countries of the
world.
• Simultaneously, the advances in human health care and local life support system have led to
unprecedented reproductive success and growth of population.
• This has resulted in the growing need for energy which is a fundamental driver of economic growth and
human development.
• It powers industries, transportation, agriculture, healthcare, and daily life.
 Role of Energy in Development
1. Economic Growth
• Energy is a key driver of industrial production, transportation, and services.
• Countries with higher energy consumption tend to have a higher Gross Domestic Product (GDP), as energy
enables productivity and innovation.
• Energy-intensive industries (such as manufacturing, mining, and construction) contribute significantly to
national economies by creating jobs and generating revenue.
• Reliable energy supply attracts foreign investment and boosts global trade.

2. Social Development
• Electricity access improves essential services like education and healthcare by powering schools, hospitals,
and digital learning tools.
• Clean energy reduces indoor air pollution from traditional biomass fuels (e.g., wood, charcoal), leading to
better public health and lower respiratory diseases.
• Energy supports communication technologies (internet, mobile networks), which are crucial for education,
business, and social connections.
• Access to modern energy sources enhances security, allowing for better lighting, surveillance, and
emergency response systems.
 Role of Energy in Development
3. Environmental Sustainability
• Traditional energy sources (coal, oil, gas) release greenhouse gases (GHGs), contributing to climate change
and global warming.
• Transitioning to renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro) offers clean, sustainable alternatives that reduce
environmental impact.
• Improving energy efficiency (better insulation, LED lighting, efficient industrial processes) helps reduce
waste and pollution, preserving natural resources for future generations.
 Energy Consumption
• Primary energy consumption measures the total energy demand of a country.
• It covers consumption of the energy sector itself, losses during transformation (for example, from oil or gas
into electricity) and distribution of energy, and the final consumption by end users.

The following are areas where energy is consumed;

1. Residential Energy Consumption
• Used in homes for lighting, heating, cooling, cooking, and appliances.
• Main energy sources: electricity, natural gas, heating oil, biomass, and solar power.

2. Industrial Energy Consumption

• Industries use energy for manufacturing, mining, and processing raw materials.
• Major consumers: steel, cement, chemical, and textile industries.
• Energy sources: electricity, coal, oil, natural gas, and renewables.
 Energy Consumption
3. Transportation Energy Consumption
Energy used in cars, buses, trains, ships, and airplanes.
Mostly relies on petroleum-based fuels (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel).

4. Commercial Energy Consumption

Used in businesses, offices, schools, and hospitals for lighting, heating, cooling, and equipment.
Major energy sources: electricity, natural gas, and solar energy.

5. Agricultural Energy Consumption

Used for irrigation, machinery, processing, and storage.
Main energy sources: diesel, electricity, and biofuels.
Energy consumption
 World energy demand and future projection
• The vast majority of the world’s energy is generated from non-renewable sources, specifically oil, coal and
gas.
• Just over 13 percent of global energy is derived from renewable sources, 10.6 percent of which from
combustible renewables and renewable municipal waste.
• The remainder of renewable energy comes from hydro-, geothermal, solar, wind, and tidal and wave
sources.
• Projections of total global energy consumption show that between 2004 and 2030, fossil fuels will provide
the bulk of the increase, with nuclear and other sources providing relatively minor contributions in
absolute terms.
• In percentage terms, gas and coal are likely to show the greatest change with increases of 65 and 74
percent respectively.
• Oil consumption is expected to increase by 42 percent while nuclear and renewables, starting from a much
lower baseline, are expected to increase by 44 and 61 percent respectively.
• The ultimate contributions from different sources will be highly dependent on policy directions.
World energy demand and future projection
 ASSIGNMENT 1

 Discuss the world’s energy demand and future projection

Submit through: [email protected] before our next class

 Measurement units and conversion factors
• Energy sources, commodities or products are measured in physical units by their weight or mass, volume,
and energy.
• The measurement units that are specific to an energy source, commodity or product and are employed at
the point of measurement of the energy flow are often referred to as “original” or “natural” units.
• Solid fuels, such as coal and coke, are generally measured in mass units. The SI unit for mass is the
kilograms, kg. Metric tons (tons) are most commonly used - for example, to measure coal, oil and their
derivatives
• Volume units are original units for most liquid and gaseous, as well as for some traditional fuels. The SI
unit for volume is the cubic metre which is equivalent to a kilolitre or one thousand litres. Other volume
units include: the British or Imperial gallon (4.546 litres), United States gallon (3.785 litres) and the barrel
(159 litres).
• Electricity is measured in kilowatt-hour (kWh), an energy unit (although it is rather a unit of work) which
allows one to perceive the electrical energy in terms of the time an appliance of a specified wattage takes
to “consume” this energy.
• Heat quantities in steam flows are calculated from measurements of the pressure and temperature of the
steam and may be expressed in calories or joules.
Earth’s Energy Resource Base

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 Non-renewable energy sources
Coal
• One of the most important primary fossil fuels, a solid carbon-rich material that is usually brown or black
and most often occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits.
• Despite its poor environmental credentials, coal remains a crucial contributor to energy supply in many
countries.
• Coal is the most wide-spread fossil fuel around the world, and more than 75 countries have coal deposits.
• The current share of coal in global power generation is over 40%, but it is expected to decrease in the
coming years.
• Coal is a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to create. The energy in coal
comes from the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago, when the earth was
partly covered with swampy forests.
• For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water
and dirt, trapping the energy of the dead plants.
• The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal.
• Coal miners use giant machines to remove coal from the ground. They use two methods: surface or
underground mining
 Peat The hotter the
temperature, the
deeper the coal is
buried, and the
Lignite
longer the amount of
time the coal is
Bituminous buried, the more
coal efficient coal you get.

Anthracite

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 Coal mining methods
• Surface mining can be used when the coal is buried less than 200 feet underground. In surface mining,
giant machines remove the top-soil and layers of rock to expose large beds of coal.
• Once the mining is finished ,the dirt and rock are returned to the pit, the topsoil is replaced, and the area is
replanted.
• The land can then be used for croplands, wildlife habitats, recreation, or offices or stores.
• Underground mining, sometimes called deep mining, is used when the coal is buried several hundred feet
below the surface. Some underground mines are 1,000 feet deep.
• To remove coal in these underground mines, miners ride elevators down deep mine shafts where they run
machines that dig out the coal.
• The mined coal is then taken to Coal fired power plants also known as coal fired power stations are
facilities that burn coal to make steam in order to generate electricity.
Coal Fired Power Plant
Coal burned to steam propels Electricity
heat water turbine

• Coal is cheap and there is lots of it!

• When coal is are burnt it releases carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide into the atmosphere contributing to
burned for heat global warming and acid rain.
• Coal mining is harmful to the environment and
mine workers – toxic dust, cave-ins and
explosions. 20
 Uses of coal
Production of Steel
• In the steel industry, coal is used indirectly to make steel. Coal is baked in furnaces to form coal coke. Once
this is formed, manufacturers use coal coke to smelt iron ore into iron and make steel.
• Meanwhile, ammonia gas is usually recovered from coke ovens and this is used to manufacture nitric acid,
ammonia salts and fertilizers.
Industries
• Some of the popular industries which make use of coal are the cement industry, paper and aluminium
industry, chemical and pharma industry amongst others.
• Coal provides numerous raw materials like benozle, coal tar, sulphate of ammonia, creosote, etc. to
chemical industries.
Gasification and Liquefaction
• Coal can be turned into a synthetic gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
• These gases are an intermediate product that can be further converted into different products like urea,
methanol, pure hydrogen and more.
• Coal can also be turned into liquid known as synthetic fuels.
Domestic Use
• In cold regions and in developing or underdeveloped countries coal is still used as fuel for cooking and a
source of heat.
 Natural Gas
• Natural gas is a fossil fuel energy source containing many different compounds. The largest component of
natural gas is methane, a compound with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4).
• Natural gas also contains smaller amounts of natural gas liquids (NGLs, which are also hydrocarbon gas
liquids), and nonhydrocarbon gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor.
• We use natural gas as a fuel and to make materials and chemicals.

Natural gas formation

• Millions to hundreds of millions of years ago, the remains of plants and animals (such as diatoms) built up
in thick layers on the earth’s surface and ocean floors, sometimes mixed with sand, silt, and calcium
carbonate.
• Over time, these layers were buried under sand, silt, and rock. Pressure and heat changed some of this
carbon and hydrogen-rich material into coal, some into oil (petroleum), and some into natural gas.
 Petroleum
• The word petroleum translates to “rock oil.” It is derived from the Greek word “petra” and the Latin word
“oleum”.
• When it is drilled from the ground in the liquid form, it is called crude oil. Below, is its refining process.
 Oil & Gas

Oil & gas burned to heat steam propels Electricity

water turbine
• Crude oil is refined by fractional distillation into kerosene, petrol,
diesel etc. before it is used as a fuel.
• Relatively inexpensive to extract.
• Reliable and dependable source of energy and income for local community e.g. in
Aberdeen,
Scotland.
• Natural gas can be converted into liquid form
• When oil and gas are burnt they release gas into the atmosphere.
• carbon
Oil spillsdioxide
are environmental disasters – e.g. BP Mexico oil spill 20
 steam propels
Nuclear reactions Heat Electricity
turbine
• Uranium and plutonium are nuclear fuels – fission reactions
• Nuclear fuels do not produce harmful greenhouse gases
• Nuclear power is very efficient
• Produces radioactive waste which is dangerous and has to be sealed in
containers and buried for thousands of years.
• Nuclear cores can melt down releasing harmful radiation e.g.
Fukushima Daiichi plant in 2011
• Safety is expensive 30
 Assignment 2
▶ Give an analysis of the power generation by source (i.e. Hydro,
nuclear, wind, solar etc.) in Kenya. Include the following in your
analysis
i. The total installed capacity
ii. Energy generated from the different sources
iii. Your recommendations as an energy expert on future expansions to avert the
effects of global warming.

Submit it through [email protected] before our next lesson

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 Renewable energy
 Energy that comes from resources which are continually replenished e.g. sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves
and geothermal heat.
 About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewable resources, 10% of all energy from
traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, 3.4% from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables

(small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels)

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 Solar energy
Radiant light and heat from the sun

Solar energy technologies includes

 Solar heating
 Solar photovoltaics
 Solar thermal
 Solar architecture

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Solar Energy

Irradiance:
Intensity of solar radiation
(kW/m2)
Insolation (Irradiation):
Quantity of solar energy
4
(kWh/m2) 0
 Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
 Photovoltaics is a method of generating electrical power by
converting solar radiation into direct current electricity
 uses semiconductor material (silicon) that apply the
principle of photovoltaic effect.
 Photovoltaic power generation employs solar
panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a
photovoltaic material.

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 Background Information
Solar Cells Operations
Operating Principles

• Photon energy knocks off electrons breaking away from an atom of

silicon
leaving holes behind
• Phonon energy which is the vibration of the atomic lattice; provides an additional
energy to dislodge electrons from the p-n junction.
 Cell-Module-Array

PHY242 32
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 Types of Modules
Common types of modules used are

Monocrystalline
Polycrystalline

Amorphous
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 Module Specifications
• Always count the no. of cells
• Compare with label at backside
(reason will be tackled in module
characteristics)

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 Module Parameters
• Every module on the market MUST display:
• ISC, VOC, IMP, VMP & PM at STC
• Obtained from the I – V curve of the module
PM: Max. Power
VOC: Open circuit voltage
ISC PM
ISC: Short circuit current
IM: Current at Max. Power
IMP
VM: Voltage at Max. Power

PHY242
7 VMP VOC 5
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 Current-Voltage (IV) curves

Maximum Power Point

(MPP) ⚫ Short Circuit Current
Isc
Impp
(ISC): The maximum
current produced by a
Vmpp device under given
Current(A)

Voc
conditions of light and

Voltage (V)
temperature,
corresponding to zero
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output voltage.
 Current-Voltage (IV) curves

⚫ Open Circuit Voltage (VOC): The maximum

ISC
MPP
voltage from a device under given conditions
I of
MPP
light and temperature, corresponding to
maximum voltage potential but zero current.
⚫ Maximum Power Point (MPP): The maximum
output from a device under given conditions of
light and temperature.

VMPP VOC

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 Current-Voltage (IV) curves
⚫ Current at Maximum Power (IMP): The current that results in

maximum power under given conditions of light and temperature, used as

the “rated” current of a device at STC.

⚫ Voltage at Maximum Power (VMP): The voltage that results in

maximum power under given conditions of light and temperature, used as

the “rated” voltage of a device at STC.

⚫ Maximum Power = IMP ×VMP

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 Current-Voltage (IV)
curves
⚫ Fill Factor (FF): A figure of merit that indicates the “squareness”
of
an IV IMP × VMP
curve. FF =
ISC × VOC

⚫ Total Area Efficiency: The ratio of electrical power output to

the total light power incident on the entire device including the

frames.

⚫ Aperture or Active Area Efficiency:The ratio of output

electrical power to the solar radiation that reaches the device. Light

39 incident on shaded area like interconnect regions and frame area is

 Series & Parallel Connection of cells/modules

When cells/modules are connected in

(a) Series connection
series, the current flow is the same
through each cell/module and the resulting
I
voltage is the sum of the voltage of each
cell/module.
V
When cells/modules are connected in
(b) Parallel parallel, the voltage across each
connection
cell/module is the same and the
I
currents add to produce a final current.

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Cable size calculation
• Calculation is based on voltage drop (VD)

VD  2
A
LIR
L = total cable length
I = current in Amperes
R=Resistance of one meter cable (Ohms/m)
A = cross section area in mm2
 Module Efficiency
• Efficiency = Output/input
• PV modules are rated based on the output power at
Standard Test Conditions (STC)
• Input of 1kW/m2, 25oC
• Rated power always quoted at the back panel (however not
to be trusted always)
• Therefore module efficiency depends on area of module &
rated power
• That is given same rated power output, module
efficiency is higher for the module with smaller area
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 Module Efficiency
• e.g. Consider two modules both rated 100W but different
area
• At same incident irradiance (1.0 kW/m2)

Input = ? outpu
Input output t
= = 100 W =
?W W 100W

Area = 1.0 m2
Efficiency = ?
Area = 0.5 m2
Efficiency = ?

PHY242 5
7 0
 Module Tilt Angle
• For off-grid systems:
• Ensures optimal power generation through out the year
• By:
• Increasing energy incident on modules at low
insolation month
• Decreasing incident energy on modules at high
insolation month
• Typical tilt angle: 10o – 15o for self cleaning
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 Tilt Angle
• optimised based on the latitude & climatic condition
of the location
June December
June December (cloudy weather)
(cloudy weather)

Loss
Loss

PV module Horizontal PV module

Tilted
Low insolation month High insolation month
Low insolation month High insolation
month
Not Optimised Optimised

Note the above optimisation is for Kenya basing on its climatic conditions
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 Features of a PV System
 Clean production

 No mechanical moving parts

 Unreliability & inaccessibility of conventional sources

 Does not depend on traditional fuel (low running costs)

 Can serve where no other energy source is available

 But is expensive (Initial installation costs) and offers limited power

(Intermittency)
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 Types of PV systems
Connection to Grid Off-grid On-grid
(Stand alone (Grid-tied
system) system)
Battery Neccesary Not necessary
 Installed at each house 20W – 1kW 3kW – 5kW
 One system is for Solar home systems (SHS)
one house

 Installed at one place 20W – 1kW 10kW – 100kW

 One mini grid system Centrlised Centrlised grid-tie
for one village system (Mini- system
 One centralised grid grid system)
tie system is
connected to grid

PHY2427

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Basic Components of solar PV systems
 PV Module
– PV Module converts Solar energy into Electricity
– Power generation is during daytime only
– Long life for 20 years
 Battery
– Battery stores electricity
– Mainly used during night time
– Life becomes short (capacity becomes small) if over discharged
 Charge Controller
– Charge controller protects battery from over charge and over
discharge
– Inverter converts DC to AC
 DC-AC Inverter
– Not necessary for DC system
– AC system is more convenient for users, but less efficiency.
 DC Light
– LED light or DC fluorescent light (built-in inverter) is used for DC
system 48
 PV System Voltage
 This is the voltage of the electricity produced by pv
system

 12V, 24V, 48V (DC) etc

 Requires same voltage system for batteries

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7 5
 Off-Grid: SHS (DC/AC)
• Always note the flow of energy in the system
• Losses exist at every point of conversion

Sun

DC DC/AC AC AC Load
PV Module DC Charge Inverter
Controller
DC DC Load

DC
Energy flow

Device to convert Battery

the form of energy

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 Off-Grid: Centralised System
• Can supply electricity to a village
• Battrey makes it very expensive
• Not common, mainly donor funded
Sun

DC DC/AC AC AC Load
PV Module DC Charge Inverter
Controller

DC
Energy flow

Device to convert Battery

the form of energy

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 On-Grid: Roof-top
• Surplus electricity sold to utility company
• Electricity is bought from utility company when deficit
from PV module

Sun

230AC
PV Module DC
Power Grid
230AC
Conditioner

Energy flow
230AC
AC Load
Device to convert
the form of energy

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 On-Grid: Centralised System
• Feeds all electricity the grid
• Daytime power plant
• Goes off when grid expriences power black out

Sun

AC AC
PV Module DC Power Step-up Grid
Conditioner transformer

Energy flow

Device to convert
the form of energy
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 Peak Sunshine Hours
 Defined as the time in hours that irradiance
is 1kW/m2

𝑃𝑆𝐻 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎΤ𝑚2

= 1 𝑘𝑊Τ𝑚2

 Important for PV planning as it is used to calculate the

generate power of PV modules

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 Optimization of Solar Resource
• PV module output depends directly on the
irradiance (both light & heat) from the sun
• Therefore output is affected by several factors:
• Module position relative to sun
• Obstacles (shades)
• Atmospheric conditions (clouds,dust etc)
• Choice of site critical for optimal output
• Module orientation & tilting necessary
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 Shading Effect
• Shading should be avoided between 8am and 4pm
• Because 90% of energy of the day is obtained during this time

Ideal Acceptable unacceptable

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 Inclination/Orientation
System Purpose of Inclination
Off-Grid  Constant power generation is essential
 Minimizes difference between maximum & minimum month in the year
 Therefore orientation must consider local yearly sun path, i.e.
o June insolation > December insolation: Face south
o June insolation < December insolation: Face north

Grid-tied  Total power generation is what matters

 Maximizes annual power generation
 Therefore orientation must consider local yearly sun path, i.e
o Face South for northern hemisphere
o Face North for southern hemisphere

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