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Block cipher: principles,

Data Encryption Standard (DES)
Concept of Asymmetric Cryptography
Rivets-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) Key
Generation,
Encryption and Decryption Algorithm.
Block Cipher: Principles and Concepts
• A block cipher is a symmetric-key encryption technique that encrypts data in
fixed-size blocks rather than processing it bit by bit. It is the foundation of many
modern encryption algorithms, including DES, AES, and 3DES.
Principles of Block Ciphers
Fixed Block Size
• Encrypts data in fixed-size blocks (e.g., AES uses 128-bit blocks).
• If the plaintext is smaller than the block size, padding is added.

Key-Dependent Transformations
• Uses a secret key to transform the plaintext into ciphertext.
• The same key is used for both encryption and decryption (symmetric encryption).

Confusion and Diffusion

• Confusion: Makes the relationship between plaintext, ciphertext, and key complex.
• Diffusion: Spreads plaintext information across ciphertext to reduce patterns.

Multiple Rounds
• Encryption involves multiple rounds of substitution and permutation.
• More rounds increase security by making it harder to break.

Key Expansion (Key Scheduling)

• A single secret key is expanded into multiple round keys.
Working of Block Ciphers
Encryption Process
1. Plaintext Block: The input data is divided into fixed-size blocks.

2. Initial Processing: Some algorithms apply an initial permutation.

3. Round-Based Transformations:
1. Substitution (S-Box): Replaces bytes to introduce confusion.

2. Permutation (P-Box): Rearranges bits to provide diffusion.

3. Mixing with Key: Uses XOR operations to mix data with round keys.

4.Final Processing: The encrypted blocks are combined to form the ciphertext.

Decryption Process
• The process is reversed using the same key to recover the original plaintext.
Data Encryption Standard (DES)
• The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric-key block cipher that was widely
used for data encryption. It was developed in the 1970s by IBM and later adopted by
the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 1977.

Key Features of DES:

• Block Cipher:
• Encrypts data in 64-bit blocks.
• Each block undergoes multiple transformations to enhance security.
• Key Length:
• Uses a 56-bit key (originally 64 bits, but 8 bits are used for parity).
• Short key length makes it vulnerable to brute-force attacks today.
• Feistel Structure:
• Uses a Feistel network, meaning encryption and decryption follow a similar process.
• 16 Rounds of Processing:
• Each round includes substitution (S-boxes), permutation (P-boxes), and XOR operations.
• Strengthens the encryption by increasing complexity.
How DES Works:
1.Initial Permutation (IP):
1. Rearranges the bits of the 64-bit plaintext block.

2.16 Rounds of Encryption:

1. Each round uses a different 48-bit subkey derived from the main 56-bit key.

2. Involves expansion, substitution, permutation, and XOR operations.

3.Final Permutation (FP):

1. Rearranges bits again after the 16 rounds to produce the ciphertext.

4.Decryption:
1. Follows the same process in reverse using the same key.
The algorithm process breaks down into the following steps :

• The process begins with the 64-bit plain text block getting handed over to an initial permutation
(IP) function.
• The initial permutation (IP) is then performed on the plain text.
• Next, the initial permutation (IP) creates two halves of the permuted block, referred to as Left Plain
Text (LPT) and Right Plain Text (RPT).
• Each LPT and RPT goes through 16 rounds of the encryption process.
• Finally, the LPT and RPT are rejoined, and a Final Permutation (FP) is performed on the newly
combined block.
• The result of this process produces the desired 64-bit ciphertext.
• The encryption process step (step 4, above) is further broken down into five stages:

• Key transformation
• Expansion permutation
• S-Box permutation
• P-Box permutation
• XOR and swap
• For decryption, we use the same algorithm, and we reverse the order of the 16 round keys.
Weaknesses of DES:
1. Short Key Length (56-bit):
1. Vulnerable to brute-force attacks (modern computers can crack DES in hours).

2. Susceptibility to Cryptanalysis:
1. Differential and linear cryptanalysis can be used to break DES with enough known plaintext-ciphertext pairs.

3. Not Secure for Modern Use:

1. Triple DES (3DES) was introduced as a stronger alternative but has also been deprecated in favor of AES.

Replacement of DES:
Due to its weaknesses, AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) replaced DES as the encryption standard in
2001.
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
• AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) is a symmetric-key block cipher used for secure data encryption. It was adopted by

NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) in 2001 as the successor to DES. AES is widely used in applications

like SSL/TLS, VPNs, disk encryption, and secure messaging.

Key Features of AES:

1. Block Cipher:
1. Encrypts data in 128-bit blocks.

2. Key Sizes:
1. Supports 128-bit, 192-bit, and 256-bit keys.
2. Longer keys provide stronger security

3. Number of Rounds:
1. 128-bit key → 10 rounds
2. 192-bit key → 12 rounds
3. 256-bit key → 14 rounds

4. Encryption Process:
1. SubBytes: Non-linear byte substitution using an S-box.
2. ShiftRows: Rows of the state matrix are shifted.
3. MixColumns: Columns are mixed using matrix multiplication.
4. AddRoundKey: The round key is XORed with the state.
 Why is AES More Secure than DES?
Feature DES AES

Block Size 64 bits 128 bits

Key Size 56 bits 128, 192, 256 bits

Rounds 16 10, 12, or 14

Security Weak (easily broken by brute force) Strong (used worldwide)

Current Status Deprecated Standard

Asymmetric Cryptography (Public-Key Cryptography)

Asymmetric cryptography, also known as public-key cryptography, is a

method of encryption that uses a pair of keys:
1.Public Key – Shared openly and used for encryption.

2.Private Key – Kept secret and used for decryption.

This method contrasts with symmetric cryptography, where the same

key is used for both encryption and decryption.
How Asymmetric Cryptography Works
1.Key Generation: A pair of mathematically related keys (public and private) are
generated.

2.Encryption: The sender encrypts data using the recipient’s public key.

3.Decryption: The recipient decrypts the data using their private key.

Since only the private key can decrypt the data encrypted by the
corresponding public key, the system ensures confidentiality and
security.
Common Applications
1. Secure Communication (TLS/SSL) – Used in HTTPS to encrypt web traffic.

2. Digital Signatures – Ensures authenticity and integrity of messages.

3. Cryptocurrency (Bitcoin, Ethereum, etc.) – Used for secure transactions.

4. Email Encryption (PGP, S/MIME) – Protects email content.

5. Authentication & Key Exchange (SSH, VPNs) – Secure login and data transfer.
Popular Asymmetric Cryptography Algorithms
6. RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) – One of the most widely used algorithms for encryption
and digital signatures.

7. ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography) – More efficient than RSA, used in modern
cryptographic systems.

8. Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange – Allows secure key exchange over an insecure channel.

9. DSA (Digital Signature Algorithm) – Used for digital signatures to verify authenticity.
Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
• Higher security (even if the public key is exposed, data remains secure).

• No need to share secret keys over insecure channels.

• Enables digital signatures for authentication.

• Disadvantages:
• Slower than symmetric encryption due to complex mathematical
computations.
• Requires more computational power.

• Larger key sizes needed for equivalent security compared to symmetric

encryption.
Encryption and decryption algorithms:
Example Encryption Algorithms (Symmetric):
• AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): Widely used, considered very secure, uses a
single key for both encryption and decryption.
• DES (Data Encryption Standard): Older algorithm, considered less secure due to smaller
key size.
• Blowfish: Another symmetric encryption algorithm, known for its speed and flexibility.
• Twofish: Algorithm is successor of blowfish algorithm. It uses block ciphering It uses a
single key of length 256 bits and is said to be efficient both for software that runs in
smaller processors such as those in smart cards and for embedding in hardware .

Example Decryption Algorithms (Asymmetric):

• RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman): Commonly used for digital signatures and secure
communication, utilizes a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption.
• ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography): Efficient for smaller key sizes, often used in mobile
devices