Statistical Computing

and R Programming
 Introduction
• R is an open-source programming language that is widely
used as a statistical software and data analysis tool.
• R generally comes with the Command-line interface.
• R is available across widely used platforms like Windows,
Linux, and macOS.
• Also, the R programming language is the latest cutting-
edge tool.
 Introduction
• It was designed by Ross Ihaka and Robert
Gentleman at the University of Auckland, New Zealand,
and is currently developed by the R Development Core
Team.
• R programming language is an implementation of the S
programming language.
• It also combines with lexical scoping semantics inspired by
Scheme. Moreover, the project conceives in 1992, with an
initial version released in 1995 and a stable beta version in
2000.
Why R Programming Language?
 Features of R Programming
Language
Statistical Features of R:
• Basic Statistics
• Static Graphs
• Probability Distribution
• Data Analysis
 Features of R Programming
Language
Programming Features of R:
• R Packages
• Distributed Computing
Distributed computing is a model in which components
of a software system are shared among multiple computers
to improve efficiency and performance. Two new
packages ddR and multidplyr used for distributed
programming in R were released in November 2015.
 R for Basic Math
• All common arithmetic operations and mathematical
functionality are ready to use at the console prompt.
• You can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division with the symbols +, -, *, and / respectively.
• You can create exponents(also referred to as powers or
indices) using ^, and you control the order of the
calculations in a single command using parentheses, ().
 Arithmetic
• In R, standard mathematical
rules apply throughout and
follow the usual left-to-right
order of operations:
parentheses, exponents,
multiplication, division,
addition,
subtraction(PEMDAS).
Arithmetic
Logarithms and Exponentials
• You’ll often see or read about researchers performing a
log transformation on certain data.
• This refers to rescaling numbers according to the
logarithm.
• When supplied a given number x and a value referred to
as a base, the logarithm calculates the power to which you
must raise the base to get to x.
• Ex: x = 243 to base 3 is 5, because 35 = 243.
• In R, log transformation is achieved with the log function.
Logarithms
 Exponentials
• There’s a particular kind of log transformation often used in
mathematics called the natural log, which fixes the base at a special
mathematical number – Euler’s number.
• This is conventionally written as e and is approximately equal to 2.718.
• Euler’s number gives rise to the exponential function, defined as e
raised to the power of x, where x can be any number.
• The exponential function f(x) = ex, is often written as exp(x) and
represents the inverse of the natural log such that exp(log e x) = loge
exp(x) = x.
Logarithms and Exponentials
 E - Notation
• When R prints large or small numbers beyond a certain
threshold of significant figures, set at 7 by default, the
numbers are displayed using the classic scientific e-
notation.
• In e-notation, any number x can be expressed as xey,
which represents exactly x X 10y.
• Consider the number 2, 342, 151, 012, 900.
E - Notation
 Assigning Objects
• If you want to save the results and
perform further operations, you
need to be able to assign the
results of a given computation to
an object(variable) in the
current workspace.
• You can specify an assignment in
R in two ways: using arrow
notation (<-) and using a single
equal sign (=).
Assigning Objects
 Vectors
• Often you’ll want to perform the same calculations or comparisons upon
multiple entities, for example if you’re rescaling measurements in a data
set.
• R provides an efficient solution to do this with vectors.
• The vector is the essential building block for handling multiple items in R.
• A vector is an ordered collection of basic data types of a given length. The
only key thing here is all the elements of a vector must be of the identical
data type e.g homogeneous data structures. Vectors are one-dimensional
data structures.
• More complicated data structures may consists of several vectors.
 Creating Vectors
• The function for creating a vector is the single letter c,
with the desired entries in parentheses separated by
commas.
R> myvec <- c(1,3,1,42)
R> myvec
[1] 1 3 1 42
Creating Vectors
Creating Vectors
 Sequences, Repetition, Sorting
and Lengths
• Useful functions associated with R vectors: seq, rep, sort and
length.
• You can create an equally spaced sequence of increasing or
decreasing numeric values.
• The easiest way to create such a sequence, with numeric values
separated by interval of 1, is to use the colon operator.

• Should read as, “from 3 to 27 (by 1)”

Sequences
 Sequences with seq
• You can use seq function to create a sequence of vector.
• The parameters are from value, to value and by value.

• These kind of sequences will always starts with from

value, but not necessarily end at to value.
• R> seq(from=3, to=27, by=5)
• [1] 3 8 13 18 23
 Sequences with seq
• Instead of providing a by value, however, you can specify
a length.out value to produce a vector with that many
numbers, evenly spaced between the from and to value.
Sequences with seq
Repetition with rep
Repetition with rep
 Sorting
with sort
• The sort function
sorts a vector in
increasing or
decreasing order.
 Vector length with length
• This
determines
how many
entries exist in
a vector given
as the
argument x.
 Subsetting and element
extraction
• In all the results you have seen printed to the console
screen so far, you may have noticed a curious features.
• Immediately to the left of the output there is a square-
bracketed [1].
• When the output is a long vector that spans the width of
the console and wraps onto the following line, another
square-bracketed number appears to the left of the new
line.
• These numbers represent the index of the entry directly to
the right.
 Subsetting and element
extraction
• Quite simply, the index
corresponds to the position of
a value within a vector, that’s
precisely why the first value
always has a [1] next to it.
• These indexes allow you to
retrieve specific elements
from a vector, which is known
as subsetting.
Subsetting and element
extraction
 Subsetting and element
extraction
• To delete individual element, use negative versions of the
indexes.
 Vector Oriented Behaviour
• Vectors are so useful
because they allow R to
carry out operations on
multiple elements
simultaneously with speed
and efficiency.
• This vector - oriented,
vectorized or element-wise
behaviour is a key feature
of the language.
Vector Oriented Behaviour
Matrices and Arrays
 Matrix and Arrays
• A matrix is simply several vectors stored together.
• Whereas the size of a vector is described by its length, the
size of a matrix is specified by a number of rows and a
number of columns.
• When you create higher dimensional structures it is are
referred as Arrays.
 Defining a Matrix
• The matrix is an important mathematical construct, and
it’s essential to many statistical methods.
• Matrix A is described as mxn matrix; that is, A will have
exactly m rows and n columns.
• This means A will have a total of mn entries, with each
entry ai,j having a unique position given by its specific
row(i=1,2…..m) and column(j=1,2…n).
Defining a Matrix
 Creating a Matrix
• To create a matrix, use matrix command, providing the
entries of the matrix to the data argument as a vector.
 Creating a Matrix
• You can elect not to supply nrow and ncol when calling
matrix, in which case R’s default behaviour is to return a
single-column matrix of the entries in data.
• Ex: matrix(data=c(-3,2,893,0.17)) would be identical to
matrix(data=c(-3,2,893,0.17), nrow=4, ncol=1)
 Filling Direction
• The filling direction of the matrix is column-by-column,
when reading the data entries from left to right.
• You can control how R fills in data using the argument
byrow.
Filling Direction
 Row and Column Bindings
• If you have multiple vectors of equal length, you can
quickly build a matrix by binding together these vectors
using the built-in R functions, rbind and cbind.
• You can treat each vector as row(by using the command
rbind) or treat each vector as a column(using the
command cbind).
Row and Column Bindings
 Matrix
Dimensions
• The built-in function,
dim, provides the
dimensions of a matrix
stored.
 Subsetting
• Extracting and subsetting an element from matrices in R
is much like extracting element from vectors.
• The only complication is that you now have an additional
dimension.
Subsetting
 Row, Column and Diagonal
Extraction
• To extract an entire row or column from a matrix, you
simply specify the desired row or column number and
leave the other value blank.
• It’s important to include the comma, that separates the
row and column numbers.
Row, Column and Diagonal
Extraction
Row, Column and Diagonal
Extraction
 Row, Column and Diagonal
Extraction
• The first command returns the second and third rows of A.
• The second command returns the third and first columns of A.
• The last command accesses the third and first rows of A, in that
order, and from those rows it returns the second and third
column elements.
 Omitting and Overwriting
• To delete or omit elements from a matrix, you again use
square brackets, but this time with negative indexes.
 Omitting and Overwriting
• The following removes
the first row from A
and retrieves the third
and second column
values, in that order,
from the remaining
two rows.
 Omitting and Overwriting
• Print A without first row and second column:
• Delete the first row and then delete the second and third
column from the result
Omitting and Overwriting
Replacement
Replacement
Replacement
Diagonal Element
Replacement
 Matrix Operations and
Algebra
• Matrix Transpose
• Identity Matrix
• Scalar Multiple of a matrix
• Matrix Addition and Subtraction
• Matrix Multiplication
• Matrix Inversion
 Matrix Transpose

• In R, the transpose of a matrix is found with the function t.

Matrix Transpose
Identity Matrix
Identity Matrix
Scalar Multiple of a matrix
Scalar Multiple of a matrix
Matrix Addition and
Subtraction
Matrix Addition and
Subtraction
Matrix Multiplication
Matrix Multiplication
Matrix Multiplication
Matrix Inversion
 Matrix Inversion
• Matrices that are not invertible are referred to as
singular.
• Inverting a matrix is often necessary when solving
equations with matrices and has important practical
ramifications.
• The R function solve() inverts a matrix.
Matrix Inversion
 Multidimensional Arrays
• Just as a matrix(a rectangle
of elements) is the result of
increasing the dimension of a
vector(a line of elements),
the dimension of a matrix can
be increased to get more
complex data structures.
• In R, vectors and matrices
can be considered special
cases of the more general
array.
 Definition
• To create this multi-dimensional data structures(arrays) in
R, use the array function and specify the individual
elements in the data argument as a vector.
• Then specify size in the dim argument as another vector
with a length corresponding to the number to the number
of dimensions.
• Note that array fills the entries of each layer with the
elements in data in a strict column-wise fashion, starting
with the first layer.
Arrays
 Arrays
• The order of the dimensions supplied to dim:c(rows,
columns, layers).
Subsets, Extraction, and
Replacements
Subsets, Extraction, and
Replacements
 Subsets, Extraction, and
Replacements

Assignment: Other ways of extraction and

replacements in Arrays