Data Collection

Techniques
(Qualitative Studies)
Key Techniques for Data Collection in
Qualitative Research
1) Observation
2) Focus group discussion
3) Interviews
4) Visual data
5) Mobile and Online data
 Overview of Participant
Observation
 Participant observation is a qualitative method with roots in
traditional ethnographic research
 Its objective is to help researchers learn the perspectives held
by study populations.
 Qualitative researchers accomplish this through observation
alone or by both observing and participating, to varying
degrees, in the study community’s daily activities.
 The researcher engaged in participant observation tries to
learn what life is like for an “insider” while remaining,
inevitably, an “outsider.”
 What can we learn from
participant observation?
 Data obtained through participant observation serve as a
check against participants’ subjective reporting of what they
believe and do.
 Participant observation is also useful for gaining an
understanding of the physical, social, cultural, and economic
contexts in which study participants live; the relationships,
contexts, ideas, norms, behaviors and activities – what they
do, how frequently, and with whom.
 What to observe during participant observation
 Ethical Guidelines

 Disclosing yourself
 confidentiality during participant observation
 informed consent
Focus groups
 When to Use Focus Groups?
Focus groups are a small group of a selected population
that are asked open-ended questions in a discussion type
atmosphere to generate data. They should:

 Involve a carefully planned discussion

 Attempt to obtain perceptions of a defined interest
area
 Be carried out in a permissive, non-threatening
environment
A Focus Group Is . . .
Who

Usually has approximately

seven to ten people in them
With common characteristics
relating to the discussion topic

How
Conducted by a trained
interviewer (moderator,
facilitator).
Limitations of Focus Groups
 Risk of biases introduced by the moderator(s)
 Domineering and/or passive participants
 Usually does not provide depth of information
compared to other methods, such as key
informant interviews
 Closing Steps
 When all questions have been asked, ask if anyone has any other
comments to make

 Summarize key points based on focus group discussion

 Have we missed anything?

 Audio taping ends

 Tell the group about next steps that will occur and what they can
expect to happen

 Thank the group for coming

 Give incentives for participation (if applicable)

 VISUAL DATA
 Visual research is a qualitative research methodology that
relies on the use of artistic mediums to "produce and
represent knowledge." These artistic mediums include, but
are not limited to: film, photography, drawings, paintings,
and sculptures.
 What Can We Learn From
Visual Data?

 Beyond words
 Changing the interview process
 A fresh perspective
 How Do Researchers Go About
Collecting Visual Data?
This may include the following categories of visual data:
 maps, diagrams and matrices (e.g. Copeland & Agosto,
2012)
 photographs and video footage (e.g. Radley, Hodgetts &
Cullen, 2005; Ross, Renold, Holland & Hillman, 2009)
 collage and drawings (e.g. Bagnoli, 2004; Guillemin, 2004).
How are visual data analyzed?
Examining the process through which an image was created is
often viewed as a vital part of the analysis (e.g. Radley &
Taylor, 2003). Attention is paid to what is made visible and
what remains hidden. This is important to understanding the
construction of a particular reality (Frith et al., 2005).
 Mobile and Online Data
 Tools used to collect online data
 Improved access to the internet and the increasingly
“wireless” nature of many parts of the world has led to new
options for gathering qualitative data. In this section, we
highlight tools for data collection that function with new
devices such as tablets and smart phones, and support a
higher level of mobility in research
 E.g. Poll Everywhere, Skype, Kudos Chat Research, Audio
Notes, Picasa, Flicker, Circus Ponies etc.
 Disadvantage of online data collection

 The obvious disadvantage of any publication about

technology is that the tools continue to advance while the
publication remains static and quickly becomes dated. For
this reason, it is important to offer readers some suggestions
about how to keep up with emerging trends in technology
that are relevant to qualitative researchers.
 Qualitative Interview

A most flexible conversation technique that used;

 To understand the meaning of interviewees
 To get rich and detailed answers
 To achieve a level of depth and complexity
 To assess un-observable individual attitudes, values and
thoughts
 To explore voices and experiences of individuals which are
mostly ignored
 To get world views of the participants

(Kvale, 1996; Silverman, 2006; Bryman and Bell, 2008)

 Advantages and Limitations of
Qualitative Interviewing

Advantages
 Economical in terms of time and resources
 Easy to directly examine people’s real life
 Things that cannot be observed
 To explore voices and experiences
 Flexible and allow more intensive study of perceptions and
feelings
Limitations
 Prone to bias
 Time extensive
 Interviewer skills

(Bryman and Bell, 2008)

 Modes of interviews

Modes Description Skills required

Structured interview  All questions laid down in advance  Neutrality;

 No prompting
 No improvisation
Semi structured  Flexible list of questions  Probing
interview  Fairly specific topics to be covered  Prompting
 Rapport with interviewees
 Clarity of objectives
 Active listening
Open  lose structure  Flexibility
ended/Unstructured  less control  Active listening
interview  No prior interview guide  Rapport building
 But focus on specific areas

(Silverman, 2006; Bryman and Bell, 2008)

Practical considerations of conducting
an Interview
 Determine the sample size
 Identify key participants to be interviewed
 Ensure the ethical standards;
• Responsibilities of an interviewer
• Site of an interview
• Contents of an interview
• Duration of an interview
• Documentation of an interview
• Incomplete interview (what if)
• Failure of recording equipment (what if )
 Process of conducting an Interview

Step (1): Planning (pre-interview stage)

Developing an interview guide
 Brief list of memory prompts
 Basic elements of preparation of interview guide;
• Objective of an interview
• Formulate different types of interview questions
• Create order
• Try to use simple language
• Try to avoid leading questions
• Use probes
 Keep interview short
 Remember to ensure background information
 Pilot the interview guide

(Bryman and Bell, 2008)

 Avoid leading questions

Leading questions;
 Worded to influence participants’ responses
 Lead participants along a particular line of thinking
Example: The policies designed by govt. Are very poor. Aren’t
they?
 To avoid this, ask neutral questions free of pre-conceptions.
(Mack, et. al, 2005)
 Avoiding leading questions
Demonstrations

Edward is an interviewer who wants to know what

people think about the local health center. Here he is
interviewing a local mother about the center.

Demonstration #1—Using leading questions

Edward: Why is the health center the best place to go when you are sick?
Mother: The staff of the health center know about illness and how to treat it.
The medicines they give work to make you better.
Edward: So the health center is a good place to go if you are sick? Mother:
Yes, I think so.

(Mack, et. al, 2005)

 Process of conducting an Interview

Step (2): Conducting an Interview

 Greet the participant in a friendly manner
 Briefly describe the interview process
 Obtain informed consent
 Turn on the tape recorder (verify working or not)
 Conduct the interview
 End the interview
 Give an opportunity to the participant to ask questions
 Turn off the tape recorder
 Thank the participant
 Clarify any factual errors expressed by participants

(Bryman and Bell, 2008)

Process of conducting an Interview

Step (3): Transcription of an Interview Recording

 Powerful act of representation

 An outcome of both deliberate and unconscious decisions
 An accurate and faithful depiction of speech

(Bryman and Bell, 2008)

 Transcription Conventions

Symbols Explanation
{??} Can’t hear the words in recording properly
Do not paraphrase the words and then claim these are actual words
=
… To indicate the break point
(‘’) Edit for the sake of understanding
() Unclear words spoken, inaudible
(( )) Transcriber’s description
[ ] Insertion by the researcher
(2.0) Pause timed in seconds
(.) Small untimed pause
Heheheh Laughter syllables (Indicate who is speaking “Samina explained” )

(Bryman and Bell, 2008)