COMPUTER SYSTEM

Grade 11 Computer system

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM AND MODES OF USE
 A “computer system” is made up of hardware and software.
Definitions and purposes of hardware devices
 The hardware is the physical electronic and electrical components that make
up the computer system.
 For example, these include the motherboard, a keyboard and a monitor.
 Peripheral devices are hardware devices that are outside the central
processing unit (CPU).
 They are normally connected to the computer by internal wiring (buses),
cables or wireless technology.
 A printer is obviously a peripheral as it is separate from the computer.
 A hard disk drive is also a peripheral because it is not part of the CPU. This
is less obvious because it is in the same box as the computer.
Most peripheral devices are one of three types:
 An input device transmits data from the user to the computer
processor. A computer is only of value if it is possible to give
it data and processing instructions.
 An output device conveys the results of processing from the
computer processor to the user.
 A storage device can store data outside the processor. When a
computer system is switched off, data in the processor are lost.
Data that are needed for future use must be saved to a storage
device
Figure 1.1.1 shows a typical set of hardware in a computer system.
The arrows show the direction of flow of data and information. The
storage device is both an input device and an output device.
 Definitions and purposes of software types
 Software is the set of instructions that make the computer hardware usable.
 These sets of instructions are known as “programs”. So, a computer program is a piece of
software.
 It is important to distinguish between operating system software and generic applications
software. Operating system software is the set of instructions that make the hardware of the
computer available for use.
 It includes programs:
 that allow the user to communicate with the computer
 that control the movement of data around the computer
 that turn instructions that people can understand into instructions that a computer can
recognize.
 Applications software is a set of instructions designed to make the computer do something
for the user.
 For example, the user might want to write a letter, create a report or create a slide show
presentation.
 Software that can be used for many tasks is called generic
applications software or general-purpose applications
software.
 Microsoft Office is a suite of generic applications, including Microsoft
Word (a word processing application), Microsoft Excel (a spreadsheet
application) and Microsoft PowerPoint (a presentation application).
 Other applications software carries out a specific sequence of tasks.
For example, a payroll application can process payroll data, print
payslips and generate BACS (Bankers Automated Clearing Services)
payments. It cannot process electricity billing data.
Take note:
 Hardware is the physical components that make up the computer system.
 Software is the set of instructions (programs) that make the computer
hardware usable.
 An input device is a physical component that transmits data to the computer.
 A storage device is a physical component that stores data for use by the
computer.
 An output device is a physical component displays data transmitted from the
computer.
 Operating system software comprises the programs that make the computer
hardware available for use, often unseen by the user.
 Generic/general purpose applications software comprises programs that can
be used for many tasks, such as a word processor, spreadsheet software and
database software.
 System software
The purpose of an operating system
 An operating system (OS) is the main item of system software used by a
computer system.
 The OS is a set of programs designed to run in the background on a computer
system and provide an environment in which application software can be
executed.
 Most operating systems comprise a large set of programs, only some of which
are stored in the computer’s memory all the time.
 Many of the routines available in the OS are stored on the hard drive so that
they can be accessed when required.
 This saves space in the computer’s main memory.
 The applications software communicates with OS program modules that
communicate with the computer hardware on its behalf.
 Without an operating system, a computer is useless no matter how many
programs you have.
There are many different types of operating system. Each type makes the
computer behave differently and is appropriate to a given computer system
and its applications. All operating systems have some common purposes:
 The OS must manage the physical resources of the computer. Some
resources are limited and must be managed to maximise the use of the
computer system:
• A simple system has only one processor.
• Secondary storage is of a fixed size.
• Some Input/Output devices (e.g., printers) are shared.
 The OS provides a means of communication (the user interface)
between the human user, or the outside world and the computer.
 The OS providon which the appes a platform lications software can
run.
 The OS hides the complexity of the hardware from the user.
 The OS controls access to the computer system so that you can put
passwords on your files to stop other people seeing them. It
controls the access rights of different users.
Whether or not a certain feature is classified as part of the operating
system or as a utility program varies considerably across operating
systems.
Types of operating system
Batch operating system
 When computing was still a new science, there were not enough machines to
satisfy the demand for processor time.
 There was a “speed mismatch” between the user sitting at the keyboard, who
was very slow, and the processing by the computer, which was very fast.
 One solution to this problem is to buy more machines.
 Another solution is to make the machines work more effectively by taking away
the slowest part of the system – the human being.
 Nowadays we might well opt to buy more machines! When computers were very
expensive, an aim for efficiency improvements gave rise to batch processing.
 A batch processing operating system does not allow for interaction
between the user and the processor during the execution of the program.
 Lots of programs (or lots of data to be run through the same
program) are collected together (to form a batch).
 The batch operating system then controls their passage
through the computer.
Nowadays, batch processing is used for applications where:
 there are large amounts of data to be processed.
 the data are very similar in nature and require similar
processing.
 the computer system has identifiable times when it is not
being used and so has available processor time.
 the application does not require interaction by a user.
Typical examples of applications which use batch
processing include:
 the processing of payroll information.
 the production of bank statements from customer files at
periodic intervals; e.g., all accounts with surnames starting
A – E could be processed on the fifth of each month,
surnames F – J on the tenth of each month and so on.
 the production of utility (gas, electricity and telephone)
bills from customer records.
 Real-time operating system
 A real-time operating system can react quickly enough to
affect the next input or process that needs to be carried out.
 There is a continuous cycle of input – processing – output.
 Mostreal-time systems are based on the control of some
process in the real world (where the processing takes place on a
timescale of milliseconds).
 Some information processing applications require the
processing to be done within seconds; it still fits the description
of the continuous cycle and is known as a pseudo real-time
operating system.
The following examples of real-time applications show why immediate
response can be vital:
 A chemical plant has a reaction vessel in which the temperature is critical
to the result of the process. The temperature is monitored by a computer
that accepts input from a sensor. The computer uses the sensor data to
make decisions about adjusting the heating elements in the vessel. A delay
in the decision-making process might corrupt the reaction.
 A robot trolley is controlled by a processor that takes input from a sensor
following a black line on the floor. The processor makes decisions about
steering to keep the trolley on the black line. The trolley would very soon
lose its direction if it was not steering quickly enough.
 A catalogue shop processes orders. The code for a
product is input and the system compares it with
information in its files.
 When it finds the correct code, it can report to the user
the quantity of that product in stock.
 It is necessary to record a purchase before the next
shopper’s request is processed otherwise the second
person might be sold the same item.
 Single-user operating system

A single-user operating system controls a system which has only

one user and their programs, at any one time.
 A perfect example of a single-user system is the PC or laptop that
you may have at home.
 Only one person uses the computer system at any one time.

 Note that it does not mean a system that only ever has one user!
This means that security measures are important so that the
system only allows access to files that belong to the appropriate
user
 Multi-user operating system
 Again, as the name implies, this type of operating system allows
the computer to service more than one user simultaneously.
 A multi-user operating system has a single (normally powerful)
computer which is connected to a number of terminals.
 These terminals are not computers, although they may have a very
limited amount of processing power.
 They rely on the main computer to carry out any processing.
 The computer sends a message to each of the terminals in turn,
asking if it wants any processing to be carried out.
 This process is called a time-share system or a round robin system.
 Each of the small amounts of processor time is called a “time slice”.
 The length of a time slice varies according to the system but is
typically about a hundredth of a second.
 A configuration in which a central computer (a server) processes data
from several terminals is called a “thin-client network”.
 There is a limit to the number of terminals that can be serviced.
 The system needs to be fast enough that a user at a terminal
does not have to wait for too long before being given
processing time.
 The system can be speeded up if the computer ignores
terminals that are not active.
 Terminals can send a signal to the computer when they need
processor time.
 Such a system is only satisfactory if the response time for
all users is acceptable; no user should have to wait for a
long time for a program to respond.
Multi-tasking operating system

 A multi-tasking operating system allows several applications to be

available simultaneously.
 On a single-user system, you are probably used to having a number of
processes loaded in main memory at the same time.
 One window may show a spreadsheet while another shows a word
processing application; you may also be connected to the Internet
through an email client; and you may be playing music while you
work.
 It appears that more than one task is running simultaneously but they
aren’t, they just appear to be.
 The OS can switch between tasks so quickly that it seems to
the user as if they are all being done at once.
 The method used to do this is very similar to the multiuser
OS.
 The tasks are allocated time slices and the computer goes
from one to the other servicing them.
 Microsoft Windows is a multi-tasking operating system. You
can view a list of the running processes in the Task Manager
operating system utility (Figure 1.2.2).
Network operating system (On-Line System)

 A network comprises a number of computers linked together for the

purposes of communication and the sharing of resources.
 A system that is directly linked to the host computer for real-time
communication and provides interaction between the user and the job,
as in POS (Point of Sale) terminals in supermarkets.
 Networks are important because they allow hardware and software to be
shared.
 They require the computers to run a network operating system. Often,
one of the machines is used to control the rest of the system; this
machine is called the server.
 control of access to the network
 management of the filing system
 management of all applications programs available from the server
 management of all shared peripherals.
 A common misunderstanding is to confuse network systems with
multi-user systems.
 A multi-user system has many users using one computer at the
same time; a network system has many computers each using
shared hardware and software.
 In networked computers, the terminals must be directly linked to
the host computer.
 Examples include ATM systems in banks, airline
reservation systems.
 Online systems can just be for information retrieval.
 Information retrieval systems are there for users to
access certain information promptly as on the internet.
 In contrast, offline systems are computer systems that
work without being directly connected to the host
computer.
Monitoring and control of processes

 Computers use devices known as sensors to gather information from the

outside world.
 Since most information gathered is analogue in nature (i.e., constantly
varying with no discrete values) it has to be converted using an analogue
to digital converter (ADC) into digital data to enable the computer to
understand and process the data.
 When controlling devices such as pumps, valves, heaters, etc. signals from
the computer need to be converted back into analogue form (for example,
electric signals) a digital to analogue converter (DAC) is used.
 Digital refers to the discrete data made up from the binary values 0 and 1.
•Many monitoring and control applications do not use a
computer system; a microprocessor is used instead but the
methodology and the outcome are the same.
There are many applications that use sensors. The
following table shows which sensors are used in a number
of common applications .

Sensor type Possible applications

temperature  used in controlling central

heating systems
 used to control/monitor
temperatures in a chemical
process
  control or monitor moisture levels in the soil in
moisture/ a greenhouse

humidity control or monitor the humidity levels in the air
in a greenhouse
 monitor the dampness/humidity in the air in an
industrial process or application
 environment monitoring (for example, measuring the
oxygen/ oxygen content in a river to check for pollution)

carbon dioxide measure carbon dioxide levels in a greenhouse

 monitoring the light levels in a greenhouse

light  in a dark room monitoring for light levels
 automatic doors to detect the presence of a person
 detecting an intruder by the breaking of an infra-red
infra-red beam
 counting things (every time the beam is broken it
counts as one)
 detecting intruders in a burglar alarm system
pressure  counting vehicles as they pass over a bridge
 picking up sounds (for example, footsteps when used
acoustic in a burglar alarm system)
 detecting liquids or solids moving in pipes/check for
blockages in pipes
 detecting movement (as in virtual reality interface
motion devices)
 used to measure acid/alkaline levels in a river
pH (pollution monitoring)
 used in a greenhouse to monitor soil acidity/alkalinity
 used to monitor acidity in a chemical process
 these tend to be another name for the above sensors
proximity/ such as infra-red, motion.

distance
 devices where changes in magnetic field occur (e.g.,
magnetic field mobile phone or CD/DVD players)
 used in anti-lock braking systems in cars/vehicles
 used in traction control systems in cars/vehicles
The sensors are part of a system which is used to either
monitor or control a process or application. There are subtle
differences between the two methods.
Examples of monitoring
 Monitoring a patient’s vital signs in a hospital
 Monitoring for safety in a chemical or nuclear process
 Burglar or security alarm (where monitoring for intruders is
carried out)
 Pollution monitoring in rivers and the atmosphere.
 Controlling the temperature in a central heating system
 Controlling the environment in a greenhouse (temperature, moisture, soil pH,
carbon dioxide/oxygen levels and so on)
 Traffic control (timing of traffic lights, etc.)
 Street lighting (controlling the switching on and switching off the street
lighting).
 In monitoring, the sensors send data/signals to a computer via an ADC. The
computer analyses the data received and if it is ’outside normal values’, it
emits a warning and/or gives out some form of a readout on a screen or
printer. The computer cannot change anything to alter the data being read by
the system.
 In controlling, again sensors are used to gather data and send it to
a computer via an ADC. If the received values are ’outside the
acceptable range ‘, the computer sends signals to devices (such as
pumps, valves, motors) to open/close, switch on or off, etc. so that
the computer, in effect, is controlling the process. Consequently,
the next sets of sensor readings are different.
 Most industrial applications use monitoring and control since it is
necessary to see what is happening in the process; but for safety
reasons, the processes are controlled by computer systems as their
response time is much quicker than humans.
 The following flowchart summarises the key differences
 Let us now consider in detail two very different systems
(1) Monitoring
Example 1 – a burglar/security alarm system
 gather data from sensors (pressure, infra-red, motion) in
the house
 signals are sent to an ADC where they are converted into
digital
 the information is then sent to the computer
 the computer compares this information with pre-set data
DAC (Digital Analogue Converter)
 if it is out of range (for example, pressure too high and is used to convert signal to
analogue so that computer can

beam has been broken) then a signal is sent to sound an interface with alarm.

alarm
 alarm continues to sound until system is re-set
 alarm continues to sound until system is re-
set
 system continues to monitor sensors until
turned off.
Example 2 – monitoring the pollution in a
river
 Sensors at position ‘A’ take readings (pH,
carbon dioxide/oxygen levels and
temperature) sensors at position ‘B’ also take
readings to measure the same set of
parameters
 the sensor data is converted to digital using
an ADC
 the data is then stored in the data logger
 the collected data is downloaded every 24 hours from the data
logger o is sent automatically via a communications link …
 … to a computer in the research laboratory
 readings from the sensors at position ‘A’ and position ‘B’ are
compared by the computer
 the results are shown on a screen in the form of graphs, for
example, or stored in a spreadsheet for further analysis
 the results from the sensors are also compared to data stored in the
computer memory (for example, acceptable values or data readings
taken on previous days)
 this allows predictions of pollution levels to be made or supply
evidence that pollution is getting worse or better.
(2) Control
Example 1 – a chemical process which is temperature (must be
80°C) and pressure (must be 2 bar) dependent
 temperature sensors and pressure sensors constantly collect data
from the reactor vessel this data is sent to an ADC where it is
converted to digital
 the information is then sent to the computer
 temperature reading is compared to pre-set value
 if temperature < 80ºC a signal is sent to an actuator to switch on
the heater
 pressure reading is compared to pre-set value
 if pressure < 2 bar a signal is sent to an actuator to open the valve
 DAC is used to convert signals to analogue to control heater and
valves
 this continues until the chemical process is completed.
 Example 2 – control of street lighting
 light sensors on the top of the lamp measure how strong the light
is
 a signal is then sent to a microprocessor in the lamp body …
 … an ADC is used if the signal is analogue since the input to the
microprocessor must be digital
 the microprocessor will contain ‘light’ values which are
compared to the input data
 if the input is less than the stored value
 … the microprocessor sends a signal to the lamp unit and the lamp is
switched on
 to prevent the lamp keep switching off and on as light changes (for example,
heavy cloud cover), the microprocessor will send signals to keep the lamp
on for a pre-determined time duration
 after this time duration has passed, the data from the light sensors is again
read within an acceptable range, the microprocessor sends out a signal …
 … and the lamp is switched off
 otherwise, the lamp stays on for another time duration before it is checked
again
 this monitoring of the sensors continues until the system is deactivated.
Note
 Some street lights work using electronic clocks rather than using light
sensors and automatically switch the lamp on or off at fixed times
during the day.
 Since the on or off times are dependent on the time of year, a
microprocessor is used to store these on or off times and it sends out
signals to switch the lamp on or off.
 The microprocessor will check the actual time against the stored times
(which will be different for every day in the year) and when a match is
made, a signal will be sent out to switch the lamp on or off.
Why do we use such systems to monitor and control processes?
Computers do not get tired or miss key data which could lead to an
incident.
 It is safer due to faster response to problems in a process.
 Computer systems work 24/7 (even though human workforce
can operate in shifts, key data can still be missed during, for
example, a shift handover).
 Computers can take and analyse readings more frequently (for
example, every 10 seconds which would be very difficult for a
person to do).
 Computers are generally more accurate so there is less chance of misreading
data.
 Computers have the ability to automatically display and analyse data without
the need to transfer data (as would be the case when taking data manually.
Benefits of Monitoring and Control Systems
- It is safer to use computer control than human beings, e.g. in monitoring
temperature in a blast furnace, monitoring radiation level in a nuclear
reactor, etc.
- It is faster to respond to problems that may affect the system, e.g. nuclear
reactor can automatically shut down in response to earthquake
- They don’t get tired, thus computers can work 24/7
- Computer systems do not miss key data that must be entered into the system
as humans do.
 Computer control is more reliable than human beings as computer does not
forget to take readings
 computers are more accurate and can take more frequent readings (e.g. if
readings need to be taken every 30 seconds, humans can make mistakes or miss
readings or even find it impossible to take readings at such short time intervals)
 data can be automatically displayed and analysed without the need to enter data
manually (which in itself could introduce errors into the system)
 Data can be automatically stored and used in other programs.
 The results of the system can be automatically stored in a spread-sheet package
or a database package for future reference.
 Computer’s response time is faster, which is important especially in patient
monitoring
Disadvantages of Monitoring and Control Systems
 High initial costs because computer-controlled devices are more
expensive to buy and to set up.
 Fewer workers will be employed leading to a rise in the numbers of the
unemployed.
 The software for the control system is very expensive
 If the computer malfunctions the system will not work
 If there is a power cut the system will not work
 The computer can’t react to unexpected events like a human could. It
can only respond in the way it has been programmed to.
 It can cause some concern if total control for a system and the decisions
are handed over to a computer.
Actuators
 Actuators are used in many control applications involving sensors and
computers or microprocessors.
 They are usually electromechanical devices such as a motor, relay or
solenoid.
 Actuators can be digital (solenoid) but others require a digital to
analogue converter (DAC) since the actuator needs an electric
current/voltage to operate a motor or a valve, for example.
 The use of actuators is mentioned in a number of applications in this
chapter.
 The reader is advised to look at a number of applications involving
sensors and actuators to find out some of the many ways these interact
with a computer or microprocessor in a control environment.
Automated Systems
Sensors, microprocessors and actuators
- An automated system is a combination of software and hardware (for example,
sensors, microprocessors and actuators) that is designed and programmed to
work automatically without the need of any human intervention.
- However, such systems often involve human monitoring.
- Sensors are input devices that take readings from their surroundings and send
this data to a microprocessor or computer. If the data is analogue, it is first
converted into a digital format by an analogue-digital converter (ADC).
- The microprocessor will process the data and take the necessary action based
on programming.
- This will involve some form of output, usually involving signals sent to
actuators to control motors, wheels, solenoids, and so on.
 Advantages and disadvantages of automated systems
- industrial
- transport
- agriculture
- weather
- gaming
- lighting
- science.
Industrial applications
- Automated systems are used in a number of industrial applications. Many of the
automated systems involve robotics.
- In recent years, the focus on increased automation has led to improved quality and
flexibility.
 For example, in the manufacture of car engines, when done manually, the
installation of pistons into the engine had an error-rate of ~1.5%; with
automated systems, the error-rate has fallen to 0.00001%.
Look at the two very different industrial applications.
Example 1: A nuclear power station
 A key use of automated systems is in the control and monitoring of a nuclear
power station.
 This is a good example, since automation gives increased safety both in the
process itself and to the workforce.
 At the centre of the system is a distributed control system (DCS).
 DCS is essentially a powerful computer that has been programmed to
monitor and control the whole process with no human interaction
required
 Data from a number of sensors is sent to a DCS (computer) – if the data is
analogue, it must first be converted into digital format using an ADC.
 The DCS will have access to a large database containing operational data
and parameters.
 If any action needs to be taken, then signals will be sent to the appropriate
actuators to operate pumps, valves or even an emergency shutdown system.
 The key here is that the system is fully automated.
 A human operator (the supervisor) will sit in a remote-control room where a
schematic of the process will show on a large screen.
 While the process is fully automatic, the supervisor can still override the
DCS and shut down the process.
The main advantages of this automated system are:
- much faster than a human operator to take any necessary action
- much safer (an automated system is more likely to make timely interventions
than a human; it also keeps humans away from a dangerous environment)
- the process is more likely to run under optimum conditions since any small
changes needed can be identified very quickly and action taken
- in the long run, it is less expensive (an automatic system replaces most of the
workforce who would need to monitor the process 24 hours a day).
The main disadvantages of this automated system are:
 expensive to set up in the first place and needs considerable testing
 always possible for a set of conditions to occur that were never considered
during testing which could have safety implications (hence the need for a
supervisor)
- any computerized system is subject to cyberattacks no matter how
good the system (one way round this is to have no external links to
the DCS; although the weak link could potentially be the connection
to the supervisor)
- automated systems always need enhanced maintenance which can be
expensive.
Example 2: Manufacture of paracetamol
 This automated system also depends on sensors, a computer, actuators and
software.
 Process 1 is the manufacture of the paracetamol.
 Process 2 is the making of the solid tablets.
 Both processes are monitored by a number of sensors that send their data
back to a central computer.
 The computer consults its database to ensure both processes are operating
within correct parameters.
 Any necessary action is taken by the computer, sending signals to the
appropriate actuator to operate pumps, valves, heaters, stirrers or pistons to
ensure both processes can operate without any human intervention.
 Again, this system uses a remote monitoring station manned by an operator.
 The system is fully automated, but the operator can override the central
computer system if necessary.
The main advantages of this automated system are:
 much faster than a human operator to take any necessary action
 much safer (an automated system is more likely to make timely interventions
than a human if necessary; it also keeps humans away from a potentially
dangerous environment)
 the process is more likely to run under optimum conditions since any small
changes needed can be identified very quickly and action taken
 in the long run, it is less expensive (an automatic system replaces most of the
workforce who would need to monitor the process 24 hours a day)
 more efficient use of materials
 higher productivity
 more consistent results.
The main disadvantages of this automated system are:
- expensive to set up in the first place and needs considerable testing
- always possible for a set of conditions to occur that were never
considered during testing which could have safety implications
(hence the need for a monitoring station)
- automated systems always need enhanced maintenance which can be
expensive
- any computerised system is subject to cyberattacks no matter how
good the system.
There are many other examples; the above two examples can be
applied to many other industrial processes.
Transport
 As with industrial processes, many of the automated systems in transport
refer to robotic systems (for example, autonomous buses/cars, autonomous
trains and unpiloted aircraft).
 But automated systems are still used in manually controlled transport, which
includes cars, buses/lorries, trains and aircraft.
 For example, modern trains will use an automatic signal control system. If
the driver of the train goes through a red (stop) light, then the computer will
automatically stop the train.
 This will make use of sensors at the side of the track sending signals to the
on-board computer; actuators will be used to apply the brakes.
 Airplanes extensively use automatic pilots, which control the wing flaps,
throttle and rudder to maintain the correct height, speed and direction.
Robotics

What is robotics?
 The word robot comes from the Czech word robota (which means
‘forced labour’) and the term was first used in the 1920s play
‘Rossum’s Universal Robots’.
 The concept of the robot has fired the imagination of science fiction
writers for countless years; indeed, Isaac Asimov even composed his
three laws of robotics:
- a robot may not injure a human through action or inaction
- a robot must obey orders given by humans, unless it comes into
conflict with law 1
 So, what is a robot in the real world? Robotics is a branch of
(computer) science that brings together the design, construction and
operation of robots. Robots can be found in:
factories
welding parts together
•spray-painting panels on a car
•fitting windscreens to cars
•cutting out metal parts to a high
precision
•bottling and labelling plants
•warehouses (automatic location of
items)
in the home
 autonomous floor sweepers
 autonomous lawn mower
 ironing robots (for example, ‘dressman’)
 pool cleaning
 automatic window cleaners
 entertainment (‘friend’ robots)
drones
 unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are drones that are either remotely
controlled or totally autonomous using embedded systems can be used
in reconnaissance (for example, taking aerial photographs)
 can be used to make parcel deliveries (for example, Amazon).
Characteristics of a robot
 To be correctly called a robot, they need to have the following
characteristics:
Ability to sense their surroundings:
 this is done via sensors (such as light, pressure, temperature,
acoustic, and so on)
 sensors allow a robot to recognise its immediate environment and
gives it the ability to determine things like size, shape or weight of
an object, detect if something is hot or cold, and so on; all sensor
data is sent to a microprocessor or computer.
1. Have a degree of movement:
 they can make use of wheels, cogs, pistons, gears (etc.) to carry
out functions such as turning, twisting, moving
backwards/forwards, gripping or lifting
 they are mechanical structures made up of many parts (for
example, motors, hydraulic pipes, actuators and circuit boards)
 they contain many electrical components to allow them to
function
 can make use of end effectors (different attachments to allow
them to carry out specific tasks such as welding, spraying,
cutting or lifting).
1. Programmable:
 they have a ‘brain’ known as a controller that determines the action to
be taken to perform a certain task (the controller relies on data sent
from sensors or cameras, for example)
 controllers are programmable to allow the robots to do certain tasks.
It is important to realise that robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) are
almost two entirely different fields:
TWO IMPORTANT NOTES:
1. Many robots don’t possess artificial intelligence (AI) since they tend to
do repetitive tasks rather than requiring adaptive human characteristics.
2. It is important not to confuse physical robots with software robots such
as:
- search engine bots or WebCrawlers (these ‘robots’ roam the internet
scanning websites, categorising them for search purposes)
- chat bots (these are programs that pop up on websites that seem to enter
some form of conversation with the web user.
According to our definition above, software robots are not true robots.
Physical robots can be classified as independent or dependent:
Independent robots:
 have no direct human control (they are said to be autonomous,
for example, an autonomous vehicle)
 can replace the human activity totally (no human interaction is
required for the robot to function fully).
Dependent robots:
 have a human who is interfacing directly with the robot (the
human interface may be a computer or a control panel)
 can supplement, rather than totally replace, the human activity
(for example, in a car assembly plant where both humans and
robots work together to produce a car).
 The role of robots and their advantages and disadvantages
 We will now consider the use of robots in a number of areas, together
with the advantages and disadvantages of using robots in each of these
areas:
 industry
 transport
 agriculture
 medicine
 domestic (home) use
 entertainment.
Industry
 Robots are used in many areas of industry, from heavy lifting work right
through to delicate procedures.
 Examples include: paint spraying of car bodies, welding bodywork on cars,
manufacturing of microchips, manufacturing electrical goods and automatic
warehouses.
 Control of robots is either through embedded (built-in) microprocessors or
directly linked to a computer system.
 Programming of the robot to do a series of tasks is generally done in two ways:
1. The robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allow it to
carry out the series of tasks (for example, spraying a car body with paint).
2. Alternatively, a human operator manually carries out the series of tasks; this
can be done in two ways. In our example, we will assume an object is being
painted using a robot arm.
Different end-effectors allow the robot arm to carry out many different
tasks:
i. the robot arm is guided manually by a worker when spraying the
object; each movement of the arm is stored as an instruction on the
computer; or
ii. the worker straps sensors to his own arm and sprays the object; each
movement is stored as a set of instructions on a computer; the
sensors send back information such as position relative to the object,
arm rotation and so on – this information forms part of the
instructions stored on the computer.
 Whichever method is used, once the instructions have been saved, each
series of tasks can then be carried out by a robot arm automatically.
 Each instruction will be carried out identically every time (for example,
assembling parts in a television) giving a consistent product.
 Robots are equipped with sensors so they can gather important
information about their surroundings and also preventing them from
doing ‘stupid things’; for example, stopping a robot spraying a car if no
car is present, or stop the spraying operation if the supply of paint has
run out, and so on.
• Robots are very good at repetitive tasks. However, if there are specialist
tasks that require ‘thinking’ to cope with variable circumstances, (for
example, making specialist glassware for some scientific work) then it
is often better to still use human operators.
Table 6.1 shows the relevant advantages and disadvantages of using
robots in industrial applications:
Advantages Disadvantages
robots are capable of working in conditions robots can find it difficult to do ‘non-standard’
that may be hazardous tasks
to humans (For example, windscreen being fitted to a car
is cracked)
robots work 24/7 without the need to stop
robots are less expensive in the long run (since robots can lead to higher unemployment
there will be fewer amongst
salaries to pay) manual labour tasks
robots are more productive than humans there is a risk of deskilling when robots take
(higher productivity) over certain tasks (for example, welding and
paint spraying)
although not necessarily more accurate, robots
are more consistent
robots are better suited to boring, repetitive factories can now be moved to anywhere in the
tasks than humans world
(Therefore, less likely to make mistakes) where operation costs are lower (leading again
to
unemployment in some countries)
there will be less cost in heating and lighting robots are expensive to buy and set up in the
(robots don’t need first place
good light or warmth)
Transport
 Driverless vehicles are increasing in number every year.
 These are very complex robots, but the big problem is not really
the technology (since problems will be ironed out through time),
it is human perception.
 It will take a large leap of faith for humans to ride in a driverless
car or an airplane with no pilot.
 We are already used to autonomous trains since these are used in
many cities throughout the world.
 These systems have been generally accepted; but that is probably
because trains don’t overtake other trains and have a very
specific track to follow.
Autonomous cars and buses
 Autonomous cars use sensors, cameras, actuators and microprocessors
(together with very complex algorithms) to carry out their actions
safely.
 Sensors (radar and ultrasonics) and cameras allow the control systems
in cars to perform critical functions by sensing the dynamic conditions
on a road.
 They act as the ‘eyes’ and ‘ears’ of the car.
Microprocessors process the data received from cameras and sensors
and send signals to actuators to perform physical actions, such as:
 change gear
 apply the brakes
 turn the steering wheel.
 Cameras catch visual data from the surroundings, while radar and ultrasonics allow
the vehicle to build up a 3D image of its surroundings (very important when
visibility is poor, such as heavy rain, fog or at night).
 Suppose an autonomous car is approaching a set of traffic lights that are showing
red.
 The first thing is the control system in the car needs to recognise the road sign and
then check its database as to what action to take. Since the traffic light shows red,
the microprocessor must send signals to actuators to apply brakes and put the gear
into ‘park’.
 Constant monitoring must take place until the light changes to green.
 When this happens, the microprocessor will again instruct actuators to put the car
into first gear, release the brakes and operate the throttle (accelerator).
 This is a very complex set of operations since the microprocessor must constantly
check all sensors and cameras to ensure moving off is safe (for example, has the car
in front of it broken down or has a pedestrian started to cross the road, and so on).
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of using robots as
discussed below.
Advantages
 Robots are capable of working in conditions which may be hazardous to
humans.
 They can work non-stop, only needing a break when maintenance is due.
 They are less expensive in the long run since they do not need a salary.
 Robots are generally more productive (they can usually do a given task in
a shorter time than a human).
 They are not necessarily more accurate than humans – however, the work
that they do is much more consistent.
 They remove the need for humans to do boring, repetitive tasks leaving
them free to do operations such as quality control.
 Less cost on factory environments – if human workers are absent
from the factory floor then heating and lighting, for example, only
need to be a minimum.
Disadvantages
 Robots can find it difficult to deal with non-standard situations, for
example, a door missing from a car waiting to be sprayed; a
windscreen about to be fitted to a car being cracked.
 They tend to reduce the need for human operators causing
unemployment.
 Also, since robots often take over the tasks done by humans, there is
a risk of de-skilling within the work force.
 Since work can be done anywhere using robots, factories are often
moved to countries where labour and operation costs are much lower.
Artificial intelligence (AI)
Introduction
 Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science dealing
with the simulation of intelligent human behaviour by a computer.
 This is often referred to as the cognitive functions of the human
brain (that is, the mental process of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thought, experience and the five senses).
 All of these cognitive functions can be replicated in a machine, and
they can be measured against human benchmarks such as reasoning,
speech and sight.
Characteristics of AI
 Essentially, AI is really just a collection of rules and data, and the
ability to reason, learn and adapt to external stimuli. AI can be split
into three categories:
 narrow AI – this occurs when a machine has superior performance
to a human when doing one specific task
 general AI – this occurs when a machine is similar (not superior)
in its performance to a human doing a specific task
 strong AI – this occurs when a machine has superior performance
to a human in many tasks.
 Reasoning is the ability to draw reasoned conclusions based on given data/
situations.
 Deductive reasoning is where a number of correct facts are built up to form
a set of rules which can then be applied to other problems (for example, if
AI is used to produce the perfect cup of tea based on a number of facts, the
machine will learn from the experience and apply its new rules in the
making of a cup of coffee, hot chocolate, and so on – modifying its
methodology where necessary).
 By carrying out a sequence of steps, the AI machine can learn, and next
time it will know how to do the task more effectively and even apply it to a
novel/new situation.
 Thus, the AI system is capable of learning and adapting to its surroundings.
 AI can very quickly discern patterns (which in some cases, humans cannot)
and then make predictions by adapting to the new data.
Examples of AI include:
 news generation based on live news feeds
 smart home devices (such as Amazon Alexa, Google Now, Apple
Siri and Microsoft Cortana):
 the AI device interacts with a human by recognising verbal
commands
 it learns from its environment and the data it receives
 the device becomes increasingly sophisticated in its responses,
thus showing the ability to use automated repetitive learning.
 use of chatbots that interact through instant messaging, artificially
replicating patterns of human interactions using AI to respond to typed
or voice messages; when a question is asked, the chatbot responds using
the information known at the time:
 autonomous cars (see Section 6.2)
 facial expression recognition
 algorithms identify key facial landmarks such as the corners of the
eyebrows, corners of the mouth, and so on
 a combination of these landmarks can be used to map emotions
(such as anger, fear, joy and surprise).
AI systems
In this handout, we consider one type of AI system:
 expert system – a computer system that mimics the decision-
making ability of a human; expert systems use AI to simulate the
judgement and behaviour of a human or organisation that has expert
knowledge and experience.
Expert systems
 Expert systems are a form of AI that has been developed to mimic
human knowledge and experiences.
 They use knowledge and inference to solve problems or answer
questions that would normally require a human expert.
There are many applications that use expert systems:
 oil and mineral prospecting
 diagnosis of a patient’s illness
 fault diagnostics in mechanical and electronic equipment
 tax and financial calculations
 strategy games, such as chess
 logistics (efficient routing of parcel deliveries)
 identification of plants, animals and chemical/biological compounds.
Expert systems have many advantages:
 they offer a high level of expertise
 they offer high accuracy
 the results are consistent
 they have the ability to store vast amounts of ideas and facts
 they can make traceable logical solutions and diagnostics
 it is possible for an expert system to have multiple expertise
 they have very fast response times (much quicker than a human expert)
 they provide unbiased reporting and analysis of the facts
 they indicate the probability of any suggested solution being correct.
Expert systems also have disadvantages:
 users of the expert system need considerable training in its use to
ensure the system is being used correctly.
 the set up and maintenance costs are very high
 they tend to give very ‘cold’ responses that may not be appropriate in
certain medical situations.
 they are only as good as the information/facts entered into the system
 users sometimes make the very dangerous assumption that they are
infallible.
So, what makes up an expert system? Figure 6.23 shows the typical structure
of an expert system:
User interface
 method by which the expert system interacts with a user
 interaction can be through dialogue boxes, command prompts or other
input methods
 the questions being asked usually only have Yes/No answers and are based
on the responses to previous questions.
Inference engine
 this is the main processing element of the expert system
 the inference engine acts like a search engine examining the
knowledge base for information/data that matches the queries
 it is responsible for gathering information from the user by asking a
series of questions and applying responses where necessary; each
question being asked is based on the previous responses
 the inference engine is the problem-solving part of the expert system
that makes use of inference rules in the rules base
 since the knowledge base is a collection of objects and attributes, the
inference engine attempts to use information gathered from the user
to find an object that matches (making use of the rules base to find a
match)
Knowledge base
 the knowledge base is a repository of facts
 it stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from a
number of expert resources
 it is basically a collection of objects and their attributes; for example:
 so, if we had a series of questions:
 is it a mammal? YES
 can it be a pet? NO
 does it live in water? YES
 does it make sonic sounds? YES
 is its body covered in skin? YES
 does it have any legs? NO
 conclusion: it is a WHALE.
Rules base
 the rules base is a set of inference rules
 inference rules are used by the inference engine to draw conclusions (the methods
used closely follow human reasoning)
 they follow logical thinking like the example above; usually involving a series of ‘IF’
statements, for example:
 IF continent = “Africa” AND language = “Kaonde” THEN province = “North
Setting up an expert system
 information needs to be gathered from human experts or from written
sources such as textbooks, research papers or the internet
 information gathered is used to populate the knowledge base that needs to
be first created
 a rule base needs to be created; this is made up of a series of inference
rules so that the inference engine can draw conclusions
 the inference engine itself needs to be set up; it is a complex system since
it is the main processing element making reasoned conclusions from data
in the
knowledge base
 the user interface needs to be developed to allow the user and the expert
system to communicate
 once the system is set up, it needs to be fully tested; this is done by
running the system with known outcomes so that results can be
compared and any changes to the expert system made.
GOD BLESS YOU
ALL

THE END