MR3491 SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT II - MOTION, PROXIMITY AND

RANGING SENSORS

Prepared by
A.R.SIVANESH
Assistant Professor
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Ranganathar Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

2 SYLLABUS
Motion Sensors – Potentiometers, Resolver,
Encoders – Optical, Magnetic, Inductive,
Capacitive,LVDT – RVDT – Synchro – Microsyn,
Accelerometer – GPS, Bluetooth, Range Sensors – RF
beacons, Ultrasonic Ranging, Reflective beacons,
Laser Range Sensor (LIDAR).

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POTENTIOMETER SENSOR

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 POTENTIOMETER SENSOR
28
A POTENTIOMETER CONSIST OF A RESISTANCE ELEMENT WITH A SLIDING
CONTACT WHICH CAN BE MOVED ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE ELEMENT .
SUCH ELEMENT CAN BE USED FOR LINEAR OR ROTARY DISPLACEMENTS,
THE DISPLACEMENT BEING CONVERTED INTO A POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

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THE ROTARY POTENTIOMETER CONSIST OF CIRCLE WIRE WOUND TRRACK OR A FLIM
OF CONDUCTIVITY PLASTIC WHICH IS ROTATABLE SLIDING CONTACT CAN BE ROTATED
29

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 30

• It works on the principle of conversion of

mechanical displacement into an electrical
signal.
• The sensor has a resistive element and a
sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along
this conductive body, acting as a movable
electric contact.

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31

• The output voltage is

proportional to the
displacement of the
slider over the wire
• Then the output
parameter
displacement is
calibrated against the
output voltage VA.

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APPLICATION
machine-tool controls Elevators
automobile throttle controls
control of injection molding machines
woodworking machinery
Printing Spraying robotics

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33

Resolver

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 What is a Resolver?
34
 A resolver is an electromagnetic transducer that can be used in a
wide variety of position and velocity feedback applications which
includes light duty/servo, light industrial or heavy duty
applications. Resolvers, known as motor resolvers, are commonly
used in servo motor feedback applications due to their good
performance in high temperature environments.
 Because the resolver is an analog device and the electrical
outputs are continuous through one complete mechanical
revolution, the theoretical resolution of a single speed resolver is
infinite. Because of its simple transformer design and lack of any
on board electronics, the resolver is a much more rugged device
than most any other feedback device and is the best choice for
those applications where reliable performance is required in those
high temperature, high shock and vibration, radiation and
contamination environments which makes the resolver the
sensible design alternative for shaft angle encoding.

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35 Resolver Design
 The resolver is a special type of rotary transformer that consists of
a cylindrical rotor and stator. Both the rotor and the stator are
manufactured with multi-slot laminations and two sets of windings.
The windings are normally designed and distributed in the slotted
lamination with either a constant pitch-variable turn or variable
pitch-variable turn pattern. In either case, the winding distribution
is in a sinusoidal pattern.
 The windings for a single speed resolver create one complete Sine
curve and Cosine curve in one mechanical revolution while the
windings for a multi-speed resolver create multiple Sine and
Cosine curves in one mechanical revolution. While a single speed
provides absolute feedback and the multi-speed does not, the
multi-speed does provide better accuracy.

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  The number of speeds available is limited by the size of
36 the resolver. The two sets of windings are positioned in
the laminations at 90 degrees to each other. These are
called the Sine and Cosine windings. One set of
windings in the rotor are normally shorted internally to
improve the accuracy.

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37 How Does a Resolver
 Work?
A resolver outputs signal by energizing the input phase of the resolver
with an AC voltage (VAC) to induce voltage into each of the output
windings. The resolver amplitude modulates the VAC input in
proportion to the Sine and the Cosine of the angle of mechanical
rotation. The resolver is sometimes known as an Analog Trigonometric
Function Generator or a Control Transmitter. The function of the
resolver is to resolve a vector into its components (Sine and Cosine).
Electrical Zero (EZ) is defined as the position of the rotor with respect
to the stator at which there is minimum voltage amplitude across the
Sine winding and the maximum voltage amplitude across the Cosine
winding when the input winding is excited with the rated voltage.
 The rotor position or angle is simply the Arc tan of the voltage output
of the Sine winding divided by the output of the Cosine winding. This
ratio metric format provides an inherent noise reduction feature for
any injected noise whose magnitude is approximately equivalent on
both windings and also results in a large degree of temperature
compensation.
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38 There are 7 functional operating
parameters which define the resolver
operation. These are:
 Accuracy
 Input Excitation Voltage
 Input Excitation Frequency
 Input Current Maximum
 Transformation Ratio of Output Voltage to the Input
Voltage
 Phase shift of the Output Voltage from the Input
Voltage
 Null Voltage

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39 Resolver Applications

 Servo motor feedback

 Speed and position feedback in steel and paper mills
 Oil and gas production
 Jet engine fuel systems
 Aircraft flight surface actuators
 Communication position systems
 Control systems in land based military vehicles

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40

Encoders

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41 Encoders

 An encoder is a sensing device that provides

feedback. Encoders convert motion to an electrical
signal that can be read by some type of control device
in a motion control system, such as a counter or PLC.
The encoder sends a feedback signal that can be used
to determine position, count, speed, or direction.
 An encoder detects the rotation of objects as a physical
change amount by the sensor element, and finally
transmits rotation/angle information to the outside as
an electrical signal. An encoder is classified into four
types: mechanical, optical, magnetic, and
electromagnetic induction types.

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 Optical Encoders
42
• Any transducer that generates a coded reading of
a measurement can be termed anencoder.
• Shaft Encodersare digital transducers that are
used for measuring angular displacements and
velocities.
• Relative advantages of digital transducers over
their analog counterparts:
– High resolution (depending on the word size of the
encoder output and the number of pulses per
revolution of the encoder)
– High accuracy (particularly due to noise immunity of
digital signals and superior construction)
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– Relative ease of adaptation in digital control systems
(because transducer output is digital) with associated
reduction in system cost and improvement of system
reliability

• Shaft Encoders can be classified into two

categories depending on the nature and method of
interpretation of the output:
– Incremental Encoders
– Absolute Encoders
• Incremental Encoders
– Output is a pulse signal that is generated when the
transducer disk rotates as a result of the motion that is
being measured.
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– By counting pulses or by timing the pulse width using a
clock signal, both angular displacement and angular
velocity can be determined.
– Displacement, however, is obtained with respect to
some reference point on the disk, as indicated by a
reference pulse (index pulse) generated at that location
on the disk. The index pulse count determines the
number of full revolutions.
• Absolute Encoders
– An absolute encoder has many pulse tracks on its
transducer disk.
– When the disk of an absolute encoder rotates, several
pulse trains – equal in number to the tracks on the disk
– are generated simultaneously.
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 – At a given instant, the magnitude of each pulse signal
45 will have one of two signal levels (i.e., a binary state)
as determined by a level detector. This signal level
corresponds to a binary digit (0 or 1). Hence, the set of
pulse trains gives an encoded binary number at any
instant.
– The pulse windows on the tracks can be organized into
some pattern (code) so that each of these binary
numbers corresponds to the angular position of the
encoder disk at the time when the particular binary
number is detected.
– Pulse voltage can be made compatible with some form
of digital logic (e.g., TTL)
– Direct digital readout of an angular position is possible.

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 – Absolute encoders are commonly used to
46 measure fractions of a revolution. However,
complete revolutions can be measured using
an additional track that generates an index
pulse, as in the case of an incremental encoder.

• Signal Generation can be accomplished using any

one of four techniques:
– Optical (photosensor) method
– Sliding contact (electrical conducting) method
– Magnetic saturation (reluctance) method
– Proximity sensor method
• Method of signal interpretation and processing is
the same for all four types of signal generation.
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47

(slits)

Schematic Representation of an Optical Encoder

One Track and One Pick-Off Sensor Shown
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 In Binary Code, bit
switching may not
48
take place
simultaneously.

Absolute
Schematic Diagram of an Encoders must be
powered and
Absolute Encoder Disk monitored only
Pattern when a reading is
(a)Binary code taken. Also, if a
(b)Gray code reading is missed,
it will not affect
Ambiguities in bit switching can be the next reading.
avoided by using gray code.
However, additional logic is
needed to covert the gray-coded
number to a corresponding binary
number.
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(Electrically Insulating Material)

Schematic Representation of a Sliding Contact Encoder

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Pulse peak: nonmagnetic are Pulse valley: magnetic area
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Schematic Representation of a Magnetic Encoder

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 • Elements of the Optical Encoder
51
– The optical encoder uses an opaque disk (code disk)
that has one or more circular tracks, with some
arrangement of identical transparent windows (slits)
in each track.
– A parallel beam of light (e.g., from a set of light-
emitting diodes) is projected to all tracks from one
side of the disk.
– The transmitted light is picked off using a bank of
photosensors on the other side of the disk that
typically has one sensor for each track.
– The light sensor could be a silicon photodiode, a
phototransistor, or a photovoltaic cell.

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52
– Since the light from the source is interrupted by the
opaque areas of the track, the output signal from the
probe is a series of voltage pulses. This signal can be
interpreted to obtain the angular position and angular
velocity of the disk.
– Note that an incremental encoder disk requires only one
primary track that has equally spaced and identical
window (pick-off) areas. The window area is equal to
the area of the inter-window gap. Usually, a reference
track that has just one window is also present in order
to generate a pulse (known as the index pulse) to
initiate pulse counting for angular position
measurement and to detect complete revolutions.

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 – In contrast, absolute encoder disks have several rows of
53
tracks, equal in number to the bit size of the output data
word. Furthermore, the track windows are not equally
spaced but are arranged in a specific pattern on each
track so as to obtain a binary code (or gray code) for the
output data from the transducer.
– It follows that absolute encoders need as least as many
signal pick-off sensors as there
are tracks, whereas incremental
encoders need one pick-off sensor to detect the
magnitude of rotation and an additional sensor at a
quarter-pitch separation (pitch
= center-to-center distance between
adjacent windows)
to identify the direction of
rotation, i.e.,
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sensor configuration.
54 – Some designs of incremental encoders have
two identical tracks, one a quarter-
pitch offset from the other, and the two pick-
off sensors are placed radially without any
circumferential offset, i.e., theoffset track configuration.
– A pick-off sensor for a reference pulse is also used.
•Signalinterpretation depends on
whether the particular optical encoder is an
incremental device or an absolute device.
– We will focus on the incremental optical encoder.
– The output signals from either the offset sensor
configuration or the offset track configuration are the
same.
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55 – Note that the pulse width and pulse-to-pulse period
(encoder cycle) are constant in each sensor output when
the disk rotates at constant angular velocity. When the
disk accelerates, the pulse width decreases
continuously; when the disk decelerates, the pulse
width increases continuously.
– The quarter-pitch offset in sensor location or track
position is used to determine the direction of rotation of
the disk. It is obtained by determining the phase
difference of the two output signals, using phase-
detection circuitry. One method for determining the
phase difference is to time the pulses using a high-
frequency clock signal.

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56

Incremental Optical Encoder Disk

Offset-Sensor Configuration
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Clockwise (CW)
rotation:
V1 lags V2 by a quarter of a cycle
(i.e., a phase lag of 90°)
Counterclockwise (CCW) rotation:
V1 leads V2 by a quarter of a cycle

Incremental Encoder Pulse Signals

(a) CW rotation (b) CCW rotation
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(c) reference
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• Two methods are available for determining

velocities using an incremental encoder:
– pulse-counting method
– pulse-timing method
• Pulse-Counting Method
– The pulse count over the sampling period of the digital
processor is measured and is used to calculate the
angular velocity. For a given sampling period, there is a
lower speed limit below which this method is not very
accurate.

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 – To compute the angular velocityω, suppose that the count during a
59 sample period T is n pulses. Hence, the average time for one pulse is
T/n. If there areN windows on the disk, the average time for one
revolution is NT/n. Hence ω (rad/s) = 2π n/NT.

• Pulse-Timing Method
– The time for one encoder cycle is measured using a high-frequency clock
signal. This method is particularly suitable for measuring low speeds
accurately.
– Suppose that the clock frequency is f Hz. If m cycles of the clock signal are
counted during an encoder period (interval between two adjacent windows),
the time for that encoder cycle (i.e., the time to rotate through one encoder
pitch) is given by m/f.
– With a total of N windows on the track, the average time for one revolution of
the disk is Nm/f. Hence ω = 2πf/Nm.

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Magnetic encoder

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61 Magnetic encoder

 The magnetic encoder detects rotational position

information as changes of the magnetic field, converts
them into electrical signals, and outputs them. The
simplest magnetic encoder consists of a permanent
magnet and a magnetic sensor. The permanent magnet
is attached to the tip of a rotating body such as a motor
shaft, and the magnetic sensor is fixed in a state where
it is mounted on a PCB board at a position where it
receives the magnetic field generated by the
permanent magnet. When the permanent magnet
attached to the motor shaft rotates, the direction of the
magnetic field detected by the magnetic sensor
changes, as a result the encoder detects the rotational
position and speed of the motor shaft.

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62 Magnetic encoder

 In the following, details about the principle of operation

until the change of the magnetic field distribution is
converted into angular information, using a magnetic
encoder consisting of a magnetic sensor called a Hall
element and a permanent magnet. The Hall element is
a magnetic sensor that uses the phenomenon of the
Hall effect to output a voltage proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field.

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63 Magnetic encoder

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64 Principle of magnetic
 encoder
When the motor shaft rotates, the magnetic field
created by the permanent magnet attached to the tip
of the shaft also rotates. At this time, the magnetic
field rotates with constant strength in the area near the
center of the rotation axis. The Hall element detects
this change of magnetic field distribution and converts
it into an electrical signal. The Hall element is a
magnetic sensor that can only detect the strength of a
magnetic field in a single direction. Therefore, in order
to detect the rotational position of the XY rotation
plane, a Hall element for detecting the strength of the
X axis component (Bx) and a Hall element for detecting
the strength of the Y axis component (By) are required.

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65 Advantages and
applications of magnetic
encoder
 Since the magnetic encoder has a mechanism to detect
changes of the magnetic field, it has an excellent
advantage of being
robust in an environment contaminated with dust, oil, w
ater, etc.
Therefore, it is suitable for use in environments with a
lot of dust, oil, and water. For example, magnetic
encoders are used in industrial sewing machines used
in environments with a lot of lint and machine tools
used in environments where cutting oil and water
splash.
 Another advantage is that it is possible to manufacture
an encoder that outputs an absolute angle with a very
simple structure of a rotation angle sensor IC and a
permanent magnet. Therefore, it is suitable for
applications that require small size, light weight, and
high reliability. For example, it is used in machine tools
that use small-diameter motors and factory automation
machines that require durability.
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66

Inductive encoders

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67 Inductive encoders

 Position measuring devices that rely on the principle of

mutual induction include resolvers,
linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), and
inductive encoders. Two of these technologies —
resolvers and LVDTs — are based on the construction
and operation of a transformer.
 In the case of an LVDT, voltage is applied to a primary
winding and induced in two secondary windings —
located on either side of the primary — via a
ferromagnetic core. Distance is determined by the
differential voltage output by the two secondary
windings, and direction is determined by whether the
output voltage is in phase or out of phase with the
primary voltage.

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68 Inductive encoders

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69 Inductive encoders

 In the case of a resolver, a rotary transformer applies

voltage to the primary winding, which is located on the
rotor. Voltage is then induced in two secondary
windings, oriented at 90 degrees as sine and cosine, on
the stator. Position is determined by the ratio of the
voltages in the secondary windings, and direction is
determined by analyzing which secondary voltage (sine
or cosine) is leading.
 Inductive encoders are similar to LVDTs and resolvers,
but instead of using traditional windings, they use flat
coils (sometimes referred to as “traces”) manufactured
onto printed circuit boards. Rotary inductive encoders
contain two main parts — a stator (also referred to as
the sensor) and a rotor (also referred to as the target).

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70 Inductive encoders

 The stator contains a transmitter coil and two (or

sometimes more) receiver coils, printed onto the circuit
board – or in some cases, directly onto the stator
substrate. The receiver coils are printed so that they
produce sine and cosine waves. In many designs,
electronic circuitry for signal processing is also
integrated onto the stator. The rotor, or target, is
passive and is either made of ferromagnetic material or
made of a substrate containing layers, or patterns, of
conductive material such as copper.
 When voltage is applied to the transmitter coil on the
stator, or sensor, an electromagnetic field is produced.
As the rotor, or target, passes over the sensor,
eddy currents are generated on the surface of the
target. These eddy currents generate an opposing field,
which reduces the flux density between the sensor and
the target, causing a voltage to be generated at the
receiver coils on the sensor. The amplitudes and
phases of the receiver voltages change as the target
moves,
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AP/MECH the position of the target can be
determined from these voltages.
71 Inductive encoders

 Inductive encoders are also available in linear versions.

Here, the target is a linear scale with ferromagnetic (or
electrically conducting) gratings, or stripes. The sensor
(also referred to as the read head) contains the
transmitter and receiver coils as well as electronics for
signal processing. As the read head travels along the
scale, the gratings of the scale cause variations in the
voltages induced in the receiver coils, and these
voltages indicate the sensor’s linear position.
 Inductive encoders provide absolute position
information and have accuracies that fall between that
of magnetic and optical technologies — without the
strict mounting considerations of optical encoders. And
they’re insensitive to nearly all forms of contamination
or interference, including liquids, dirt and dust,
magnetic fields, EMI, and even severe vibrations. For
rotary measuring applications, the printed circuit board
construction of inductive encoders gives them a much
smaller form factor and more design flexibility than
their
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72 Capacitive encoders

 Two types of encoders dominate the general industrial

market—optical and magnetic. But capacitive
encoders, a relatively new introduction, offer resolution
comparable to optical devices, with the ruggedness of
magnetic encoders. Currently, there are only a handful
of vendors for capacitive encoders, but their suitability
for applications requiring high precision and durability
make them a good choice for the semiconductor,
electronics, medical, and defense industries.

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73 How capacitive encoders
work
 The basic principle behind capacitive encoders is that
they detect changes in capacitance using a high-
frequency reference signal. This is accomplished with
the three main parts—a stationary transmitter, a rotor,
and a stationary receiver. (Capacitive encoders can
also be provided in a “two-part” configuration, with a
rotor and a combined transmitter/receiver.) The rotor is
etched with a sinusoidal pattern, and as it rotates, this
pattern modulates the high-frequency signal of the
transmitter in a predictable way.
 The receiver disk reads the modulations, and on-board
electronics — a proprietary ASIC is used by the
vendor CUI Inc. — translate them into increments
of rotary motion. The electronics also produce
quadrature signals for incremental encoding, with
resolution ranging from 48 to 2,048 pulses per
revolution (PPR).
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74 How capacitive encoders
work

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75 How capacitive encoders
work
 Capacitive encoders work by transmitting a high-
frequency signal through a rotor that is etched with a
sinusoidal pattern. As the rotor moves, this pattern
modulates the signal in a predictable way. The receiver
reads the modulations, and on-board electronics
translate them into increments of rotary motion.
 In the proprietary capacitive Electric Encoder by
Netzer Precision Motion Sensors, the encoder has two
operating modes: Coarse Mode and Fine Mode.
Coarse Mode is typically used upon system start-up, to
determine the initial position. The encoder is then
switched to Fine Mode for ongoing operation. By
breaking up the total measuring range into small, equal,
distinct segments, the scale of each segment can be
much finer than if the same scale were used over the
entire measuring range. This enables very high
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resolution without added expense.

76

LVDT (LINEAR VARIABLE

DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER)

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 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

77
LVDT (LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER)

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78 Cont.…
• Construction of LVDT:

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 79 LVD
• T
CONSIST OF THREE COIL SYMMETERICALLY SPACED ALONG THE INSULATED
TUBES
• THE LEFT SIDE COIL IS PRIMARY COIL AND OTHER TWO COILS ARE
SECONFARY COIL WHICH ARE CONNECTED PARALLEL TO EACH OTHER.
• THE MAGNETIC OR IRON CORE MOVE BETWEEN THIS TWO COIL AS THE
RESULT OF THE DISPLACEMENT BEING MONITORED
• THE AC INPUT TO THE PRIMARY COIL,AC EMF ARE INDUCED IN THE
SEECONDARY COIL
• As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages
induced in the secondary's to change. The coils are connected in reverse
series, so that the output voltage is the difference (hence "differential")
between the two secondary voltages. When the core is in its central
position, equidistant between the two secondary's, equal but opposite
voltages are induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is zero.

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 Linear variable differential
80 transformer (LVDT)

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81

• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a

primary transducer used for measurement of linear
displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400
mm in general.
• It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insulated tube.
• The central coil is primary coil and the other two are
secondary coils.
• Secondary coils are connected in parallel in such a way
that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core
attached to the element of which displacement is to be
monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.

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82

• Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil,

alternating electromagnetic forces (emfs) are
generated in secondary coils
• When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its
half portion in each of the secondary coil regions then
the resultant voltage is zero
• If the core is displaced from the central position as
shown in Figure 2.2.7, say, more in secondary coil 1
than in coil 2, then more emf is generated in one coil
• If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the
value of resultant voltage increases in proportion with
the displacement

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Characteristics of LVDT:
83

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The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical transformer used for
measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three solenoidal coils placed end-to-end
around
84 a tube. The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the secondaries. A
cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the object whose position is to be measured, slides
along the axis of the tube.
An alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be induced in each
secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary. The frequency is usually in the
range 1 to 10 kHz.
As the core moves, these mutual inductances change, causing the voltages induced in the
secondaries to change. The coils are connected in reverse series, so that the output voltage is the
difference (hence "differential") between the two secondary voltages. When the core is in its
central position, equidistant between the two secondaries, equal but opposite voltages are
induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is zero.
When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases as the other
decreases, causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum. This voltage is in phase
with the primary voltage. When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also
increases from zero to a maximum, but its phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude
of the output voltage is proportional to the distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel),
which is why the device is described as "linear". The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of
the displacement.
Because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, it can move without friction, making
the LVDT a highly reliable device. The absence of any sliding or rotating contacts allows the LVDT to
be completely sealed against the environment.
LVDTs are commonly used for position feedback in servomechanisms, and for automated
measurement in machine tools Aand
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R, AP/MECH
85

Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer
(RVDT)

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86 Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer
(RVDT)
 The transformer which senses the angular displacement of the
conductor is known as the Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer or RVDT. It is the type of electromechanical
transducer which gives the linear output proportional to the
input angular displacement.
 The circuit of RVDT is shown in the figure below. The working of the
RVDT is similar to the LVDT. The only difference is that the LVDT
uses the soft iron core for measuring the displacement, whereas
the RVDT uses the cam shape core rotated between the primary
and secondary winding with the help of the shaft.

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87 Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer
(RVDT)

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88 Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer
(RVDT)
 The differential output voltage of the transformer
increases when the shaft rotates in a clockwise
direction. And it decreases when the shaft moves in an
anti-clockwise direction. The magnitude of the output
voltage depends on the angular displacement and the
direction of the shaft.
 When the Core is at Null Position
 In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the
null position then the induced e.m.f in the secondary
windings are similar although reverse in phase. Thus,
the differential o/p potential will be zero, and the
condition will be E1 = E2, where E0 = E1-E2 =0

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89 Rotary Variable
Differential Transformer
(RVDT)
 When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
The second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction
of clockwise; more section of the core will enter across
the primary winding. Therefore, the induced e.m.f across
the primary winding is higher than secondary winding.
Hence, the differential o/p potential is positive, and the
condition will be E1 > E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = positive.
 When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction
of anticlockwise, more section of the core will be entered
across the secondary winding. Thus, the induced e.m.f
across the secondary coil is higher than the primary coil.
Hence, the differential o/p potential is negative that
means 1800 phase shift, and the condition will be E1 <
E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.

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90 RVDT Advantages
The advantages of RVDT include the following.
The consistency of RVDT is high
The exactness of RVDT is high
The lifespan is long
The performance is repeatable
The construction is compact and strong
Durability
Low cost
Easy to handle electronic components
Resolution is infinite
Linearity is Excellent
A wide range of dimension ranges
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91 RVDT Disadvantages

The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following

The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the
nozzle is not possible for all time.
The output of the RVDT is linear (about +40 or -40
degrees), so it restricts the usability.

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92 RVDT Applications
The applications of RVDT include the following.
Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic
Modern machine tools
Controls Cockpit
Controls Fuel
Brake with cable systems
Engines bleed air-systems
Robotics
Aircraft and Avionics
Process Control industry
Weapon and Torpedo Systems
Engine fuel control
Nose wheel steering systems
Fly by wire systems
Push reverser
Actuators for controlling Flight as well as Engine
Ecological control systems
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93

SYNCHRO

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94 SYNCHRO

 Synchros are electromagnetic devices that are used to

transmit positional data electrically from one location
to another. It can also be used to compute the sum of
two rotations, or the difference in angle between them
and they are also used in applications that require low
output torques. It can also be called as an
electromagnetic transducer which can convert the
angular position of the shaft into an electrical signal.
Mostly AC transmission system is known as synchros
because of their synchronous action in reproducing the
angular movement of a shaft.

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95 Principle operation of
 synchro
Synchro is a form of a rotating transformer that resembles a
small AC motor and they are widely used as an element of
measuring and control systems involving rotatable shafts. The
primary coil is wound on the rotor and couples magnetically to
the secondary coils on the stator and the connections to the
external terminals are through slip rings. Synchros mostly have
three secondary windings arranged 120 degrees apart to give
the varying voltage ratios as the primary winding is rotated.
The rotor energizing voltage is an AC reference voltage at 50
Hz and this induces a voltage across each stator winding which
is dependent on the instantaneous angle between the rotor
and stator coil axes. So the voltage across any pair of stator
terminals is, therefore, the sum or difference, depending on
the phase of the individual stator winding voltages. It can also
be called as an electromechanical transducer. The magnitude
of the magnetic coupling varies between the primary and
secondary according to the position of the rotating element.
This, in turn, varies the magnitude of the output voltage

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96 SYNCHRO

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97 How synchro is used in
servo system
Control synchro system
The control synchro system is the most common of all
synchros and is extensively used in aircraft and navigation
systems. Control synchros are similar to the torque
synchros but the signal from the receiver is going to be
amplified to drive output and the impedance of the
windings is much higher so there is no danger of the
system burning out. The control transformer can act as a
null detector and can be used in servo systems. Control
synchros can be used in electromechanical servo and shaft
positioning.

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98 What is the use of
synchro
 It can be used for electromechanical servo and shaft
positioning and control synchros are used in aircraft
instruments and navigation systems. Synchros are
used for data transmission and it is used in radar
antenna. Synchros can be used in measurement and
control applications

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99

Microsyn

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100 Microsyn
 This is a variable-reluctance transducer used to detect
small motions, giving output signals as low as 0.01° of
changes in angles.
 The figure below shows an example of Microsyn:

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 Microsyn
10
1

 In the Microsyn transducer above, the coils are connected in such

a way that at the null position of the rotary element, the voltages
in coils 1 and 3 are balanced by voltages induced in coils 2 and 4.
 The motion of the rotor in the clockwise direction increases the
reluctance of coils 1 and 3 while decreasing the reluctance of coils
2 and 4, thus giving a net output voltage vo.
 The movement in the counterclockwise direction causes a similar
effect in coils 2 and 4 with a 180° phase shift. A direction sensitive
output can be obtained by using phase-sensitive demodulators
 The sensitivity of the device can be made as high as 5 V per
degree of rotation. The nonlinearity may vary from 0.5% to 1.0%
full scale.
 The key benefits of these transducers are that the rotor does not
have windings and slip-rings and the magnetic reaction torque is
also negligible.

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102 Application

 Microsyn transducers are expansively used in

applications involving gyroscopes.

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103

Accelerometer Sensor

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104 Accelerometer Sensor

 The rate of change of velocity of the body with respect

to time is called acceleration. According to relative
theory, depending upon the relative object taken to
measure acceleration, there are two types of
acceleration. The proper acceleration, which is the
physical acceleration of the body relative to inertia or
the observer who is at rest relative to the object being
measured.
 The coordinate acceleration depends upon the choice
of coordinate system and choice of observers. This is
not equal to proper acceleration. Accelerometer sensor
is the electromechanical device used to measure the
proper acceleration of the object.

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105 Working Principle
 The basic underlying working principle of an
accelerometer is such as a dumped mass on a spring.
When acceleration is experienced by this device, the
mass gets displaced till the spring can easily move the
mass, with the same rate equal to the acceleration it
sensed. Then this displacement value is used to
measure the give the acceleration.
 Accelerometers are available as digital devices and
analog devices. Accelerometers are designed using
different methods. Piezoelectric, piezoresistive and
capacitive components are generally used to convert
the mechanical motion caused in accelerometer into an
electrical signal.

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106 Working Principle

 Piezoelectric accelerometers are made up of single

crystals. These use the piezoelectric effect to measure
the acceleration. When applied to stress, these crystals
generate a voltage which is interpreted to determine the
velocity and orientation.
 Capacitive accelerometers use a silicon micro-machined
element. Here capacitance is generated when
acceleration is sensed and this capacitance is translated
into a voltage to measure the velocity values.
 Modern accelerometers are the smallest MEMS, consisting
of a cantilever beam with proof mass. Accelerometers are
available as two-dimensional and three-dimensional forms
to measure velocity along with orientation. When the
upper-frequency range, high-temperature range, and low
packaged weight are required, piezoelectric
accelerometers are the best choice.

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107 Applications
The Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:
For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive accelerometers are used.
To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
To display images in an upright position on screens of digital cameras.
For flight stabilization in drones.
Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, coordinate acceleration, vibration,
shock.
Used to detect the position of the device in laptops and mobiles.
High-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial acceleration in biological
applications for discrimination of behavioral patterns of animals.
 Machinery health monitoring.
 To detect faults in rotator machines.
 These are also used for building and structural monitoring to measure the motion
and vibration of the structure when exposed to dynamic loads.
 To measure the depth of CPR chest compressions.
Navigation systems make use of accelerometer sensors for knowing the direction.
Remote sensing devices also use accelerometers to monitor active volcanoes.

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10
8
Uses/Examples

 Some of the examples of the applications of

accelerometer sensor are Aircrafts, missiles, Quake-
catcher network for scientific research of earthquakes,
pumps, fan, rollers, compressors, Zoll’s AED plus,
footpods, Intelligent compaction rollers, airbag
deployment system, electronic stability control system
in automobiles, tilting trains, Gravimetry, camcorders,
Glogger VS2, mobile phones etc…

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109

GPS Sensor

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11
0
GPS Sensor

 As we know GPS stands for Global Positioning System.

The system contains satellites and ground based control
installations. GPS sensor consists of surface mount chip
which processes signals from GPS satellites using a
small rectangular antenna, often mounted on the top of
the GPS chip.
• GPS module is usually small board on which GPS sensor is
mounted with additional components.
• GPS receiver is a device which includes data display
and other components such as memory for data storage
in addition to GPS module.

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111 GPS Sensor

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11
2
GPS Sensor

 The figure-1 depicts breakout board along with GPS

sensor offered by Adafruit industries. GPS system
consists of three segments viz. space segment, control
segment, user segment. Space segment contains about
31 satellites as of August 2018 which are located in the
orbit about 12,500 miles above earth. Hence each of
these satellites circle two times in 24 hours. Control
segment contains command, control and monitoring
stations. USer segment consists of receiving devices
(e.g. both government and private).

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11
3
GPS Sensor Working

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114 GPS Sensor Working

 ➤As shown in figure-2, about four satellites are needed

to determine a position on the earth in 3 dimensional
space. Each of these satellites carry multiple atomic
clocks which maintain precise time and pseudo random
number generator in the form of linear feedback shift
register.
➤GPS receiver can distinguish signals from atleast four
satellites by comparing their received pseudo random
bit sequences and can calculate receiver's distance to
each of these satellites by comparing arrival times of
satellite signals.
➤Distance = transit time (sec) x speed of light
(meter/sec)

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115 GPS Sensor Working

 ➤GPS satellites transmit on several frequencies

simultaneously. One such frequency known as L1 (1575.42
MHz) is used for civilian applications where as the other
frequency L2 (1227.6 MHz) is used for military applications.
Refer GPS and GNSS frequency bands >> for more
information on gps and gnss frequencies.
➤GPS module housing GPS sensor requires DC power supply.
It starts outputting data as soon as it identifies the satellites
within its range. The data follows plain ASCII protocol known
as NMEA protocol. The transmission rate is either 4800 bps or
9600 bps and uses {8 bits, no parity, 1 stop bit} for
decoding. The data blocks are known as sentences which are
of about 80 characters in length. Refer GPS Sentences >> for
more information. These gps sentences contain latitude,
longitude, altitude and data recording time. These sentences
are decoded by connecting microcontroller with GPS module
and writing small program.
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11
6

Bluetooth Sensors

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11
7
Bluetooth Sensors

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118 Bluetooth Sensors
 At the moment, the world has been made more brilliant by the
rapid advancements in technology. New devices and ideas have
risen continuously, thereby improving the prevailing
technologies and generating new market sections. Similarly,
Bluetooth technological advances have contributed to the birth
of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), also referred to as Bluetooth
Smart. The Bluetooth Low Energy is a short-range, low-power
with a less-data-rate wireless communication protocol
developed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). Its
encrusted protocol stack is designed in such a way that it
competently transfers insignificant amounts of data with less
consumption of power. Due to this, Bluetooth Low Energy is the
most preferred wireless protocol for battery-operated
applications. This article will explore the technical features of
Bluetooth sensors, how to connect and use Bluetooth sensors,
how Beacon sensors can be used for business, and how to read
and control sensor data in Arduino using Bluetooth.
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11
9
Transmit Data using
Bluetooth Beacon
sensors
 Bluetooth Beacon sensors are small transmitters that
broadcast signals to close portable devices using
Bluetooth Low Energy technology. They have an action
range of around 90 meters and can only transmit data
but cannot receive it. Once the sensor detects the
nearby devices, it sends digital messages to the
targeted devices. Currently, beacons are used
proportionally with mobile applications. These mobile
applications obtain a unanimously unique identifier to
perform several functions, such as triggering a
location-based action and tracking customers.

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120 Transmit Data using
Bluetooth Beacon
sensors

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121 Technical Features of a
Bluetooth Sensor
a) Radio interface
The Bluetooth IoT sensors work with the same spectrum
range of between 2.400–2.4835 GHz ISM band as classic
Bluetooth technology. The only difference is that Bluetooth
Low Energy uses a different set of channels. It has forty 2-
MHz channels, whereas classic Bluetooth has seventy-nine
1-MHz channels. The Gaussian frequency shift modulation
is used to transmit data within a channel in the BLE
technology. It has a bit rate of 1 Mbit/s but with an option
in Bluetooth 5 of 2 Mbit/s. Also, it has a maximum transmit
power of 10 mW and 100 mW in Bluetooth 5.

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122 Technical Features of a
Bluetooth Sensor
b) Advertising and discovery
Bluetooth Low Energy sensors are spotted through a
technique based on broadcasting advertising packets. It is
usually done using 3 distinct frequencies to decrease
interference. The advertising device sends packets of not
less than one of the three frequencies with a repetition
period termed as the advertising interval. In each
advertising interval, there is an addition of a random delay
of 10 milliseconds that reduces the chance of numerous
consecutive collisions. The scanner attends to the
frequencies for a period termed as the scan window, which
is occasionally recurrent after each scanning interval.

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123 Technical Features of a
Bluetooth Sensor
c) Battery impact
Bluetooth Low Energy sensors are specially designed to
work even with shallow power consumption. Various power
necessities are required for devices with central and
peripheral roles. A study conducted by a beacon software
company Aislelabs conveyed that computer peripherals,
for instance, propinquity beacons, regularly function for up
to 2 years using a 1,000mAh coin cell battery. The
Bluetooth Low Energy protocol makes this possible due to
its power efficiency. BLE transmits small packets; hence
it’s ideal for high and audio bandwidth data compared to
Bluetooth Classic.

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124 Technical Features of a
Bluetooth Sensor
d) 2M PHY
A new doubled symbol rate transmission mode has been
introduced by Bluetooth 5. Initially, Bluetooth Low Energy
sensors only transmitted 1 bit per symbol, but with
Bluetooth 5, they can data with double rates. However,
the new transmission mode pairs the bandwidth to 2 MHz
from about 1 MHz, making more intrusions on the edge
areas. The ISM frequency band segmentation has 40
channels with a spaced distance of 2 MHz, which is
essentially different from the Bluetooth 2 EDR.

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12
5
Technical Features of a
Bluetooth Sensor
e) GATT operations
The GATT protocol is essential to the user as it offers
several commands regarding the discovered
information about the server. These commands
include:

 Discovering UUIDs for each principal services

 Finding a given UUID for every service
 Finding subordinate services for a given principal
service
 Discovering every feature for a specific service
 Finding features that match a specified UUID
 Reading all signifiers for a precise distinctive
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126 Pairing a Bluetooth Sensor
with a Smartphone
 the steps followed when pairing Bluetooth-compatible
sensors using a smartphone. The Aventura receives the
sensor pairing data together with the settings once the
pairing process is complete.
a) Ensure that (Connect) is on, then from the (MENU)
tap (Device)
b) Start the sensor
 Once the Bluetooth smart sensor signal is detected, it
displays a message on the smartphone.
 To complete the pairing process of the already displayed
sensor, tap (Pairing).
 Press (Skip) if the gadget’s name is dissimilar from the
expected, then tap (Pairing) again. Repeat this occasionally
till the anticipated device is shown.
 When using the Bluetooth le sensor to pair, the sensor
name is displayed with an “A.”
 Sivanesh
Prepared by OverA R,18 distinct sensor identifications, including the P.C, can
AP/MECH
be paired.
12
7
Pairing a Bluetooth
Sensor with a
Smartphone
c) Establish the tire circumference for any sensor
with speed measurements
Press (Device), and also tap the Sensor name > [Tire
Circumference]. Tire circumference is the approximate
length of the outer rim in each tire. Sensors that cannot
measure speed are never displayed.
The tire size list is displayed once tapping is done. The
tire circumference is selected per the tire size shown on
the tire side.
 Original value: 2096 mm
 To any Bluetooth door sensor capable of speed
measurements, it is recommendable to set the tire
circumference.
 It is possible to cancel the pairing and changed the
device names from this screen.

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128 Pairing a Bluetooth
Sensor with a

Smartphone
After following all those steps, the pairing process of the
Bluetooth sensor is now complete.
 Repeat the same procedure when pairing with another Bluetooth
sensor.
 After completing the pairing process, it is essential to mount the
Bluetooth motion sensor close to you. Also, follow the guidelines
written on the individual sensor’s instruction manual
appropriately to determine the suitable place to mount the
sensor.
 Important Information
 Pair every usable sensor.
 Never pair Bluetooth smart sensors in the exact location or at
any venue with many other users. Doing this can make
the sensors pair up with other irrelevant devices. A Bluetooth
mesh sensor can epitomize a sole physical BLE sensor.
 When working with third-party Bluetooth sensors, only an
Android smartphone can transfer data to the Aventura, whereas
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an iPhone cannot.
129

RANGE sensor

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13
0
Working principle of
Range sensors
 The distance between the object and the robot hand is
measured using the range sensors Within it is range of
operation.
 The calculation of the distance is by visual processing.
Range sensors find use in robot navigation and
avoidance of the obstacles in the path.
 The - location and the general shape characteristics of
the part in the work envelope of the robot S done by
special applications for the range sensors.
 There are several approaches like, triangulation
method, structured lighting approach and time-of flight
range finders etc. In these cases the source of
illumination can be light-source, laser beam or based
on ultrasonic.

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131 Triangulation Method:

 The object is swept over by

a narrow beam of sharp
light.
 The sensor focused on a
small spot of the object
surface detects the
reflected beam of light.
 If ‗8‘is the angle made by
the ill source and the
sensor, the distance

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132 Structured Lighting
Approach:
 This approach consists of projecting a light pattern the
distortion of the pattern to calculate the range. A
pattern in use today is a sheet of light generated
narrow slit.
 As illustrated in. Figure, the intersection yields a light
Stripe which is viewed through a television camera
displaced a distance B from the light source.
 The stripe pattern is easily analysed by a computer to
obtain range information. For example, an inflection
indicates a change of surface, and a break corresponds
to a gap between surfaces.
 Specific range values are computed by first calibrating
the system. One of the simplest arrangements is shown
in Figure, which represents a top view of Figure.
 In this, arrangement, the light source and camera are
placed at the same height, and the sheet of light is
perpendicular to the line joining the origin of the light
sheet and the centre of the camera lens.

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133

RF Beacon

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134 RF Beacon

 An RF Beacon is a circuit that produces a continuous

pulse that helps with tracking down an item or vehicle.
One use for such a beacon would be to locate a rocket
when it comes back down too far away to be seen. In
this DIY Hacking project, we will use a 433 MHz RF
transmitter and a pair of 555 astable oscillators to
create an RF beacon.

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13
5
RF Beacon Circuit
Schematic

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13
6
How Does the RF
Transmitter Work
 The RF beacon consists of three main units; A low frequency
555 oscillator, an audio (high frequency) oscillator, and an RF
433MHz module. The first unit, a low-frequency oscillator,
creates a pulse at a frequency of approximately 1Hz which has
an extremely large duty cycle (close to 99.9%). This signal is
then inverted thanks to Q1 in the form of a NOT gate, this
creates a pulse with a duty cycle near 0.01%. The low duty
cycle pulse is connected to the RESET of an audio 555
oscillator. When the output from the low-frequency oscillator
stage (after Q1) becomes 0V, the audio oscillator (IC2), is
disabled and the result is no audio signal being produced.
When the output of the low-frequency oscillator becomes VCC
then the audio oscillator (IC2) is enabled and produces an
audio able tone. This signal is inverted and then fed into the RF
module which emits a tone on the 433MHz spectrum which
can easily be picked up by receivers.
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137 How Does the RF
Transmitter Work
 The circuit can be built using through hole techniques
including PCB, solderless breadboard, stripboard, and
even matrix board. While the circuit shown here is
rather large, it can easily be shrunk down using surface
mount components. That way, the circuit can easily be
fitted onto small drones and RC planes while also
keeping weight down to add RF tracking capabilities.
For this project, a custom PCB has been designed to
demonstrate the circuit using CNC milling. All the files
needed for this project can be found here including the
CNC code needed to make the PCB: RF Beacon Project
Files.

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13
8

Ultrasonic Ranging
Sensor

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13
9
Ultrasonic Ranging
Sensor
 An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures
the distance to an object using ultrasonic sound waves.

An ultrasonic sensor uses a transducer to send and

receive ultrasonic pulses that relay back information
about an object’s proximity.

High-frequency sound waves reflect from boundaries to

produce distinct echo patterns.

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14
0
Ultrasonic Sensors
Works
 Ultrasonic sensors work by sending out a sound wave
at a frequency above the range of human hearing. The
transducer of the sensor acts as a microphone to
receive and send the ultrasonic sound. Our ultrasonic
sensors, like many others, use a single transducer to
send a pulse and to receive the echo. The sensor
determines the distance to a target by measuring time
lapses between the sending and receiving of the
ultrasonic pulse.

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141 Ultrasonic Sensors
Works

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142 Ultrasonic Sensors
Works
 The working principle of this module is simple. It sends an
ultrasonic pulse out at 40kHz which travels through the air
and if there is an obstacle or object, it will bounce back to
the sensor. By calculating the travel time and the speed of
sound, the distance can be calculated.
Ultrasonic sensors are a great solution for the detection of
clear objects. For liquid level measurement, applications
that use infrared sensors, for instance, struggle with this
particular use case because of target translucence.
For presence detection, ultrasonic sensors detect objects
regardless of the color, surface, or material (unless the
material is very soft like wool, as it would absorb sound.)
To detect transparent and other items where optical
technologies may fail, ultrasonic sensors are a reliable
choice.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

143 Features

 Power supply: 5V DC.

 Effectual angle: <15°.
 Ranging distance: 25cm – 500 cm.
 Resolution: 1 cm.
 Ultrasonic Frequency: 40k Hz.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

14
4
Hardware

 Connect this triple axis magnetometer breadkout

module to your Arduino/Crowduino I2C wires(SDA:A4,
D18;SCL:A5, D19)as below:

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

145 Technical characteristics

 Prismatic PVC reflecting translucent with protector in

rigid PVC welded by ultrasounds.
 Reinforcement in adhesive of reflecting and translucent
vinyl. Subjection in velcro and nylon rivets. Anti UV
processing.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

14
6
Advantages
 Tone of light. Its yellow light tone allows you to see
double than with an amber light and triple than with a
redorange light.
 Color. The dominant colors in city (halogenous lamps)
or in the morning correspond to warm ranges.
 Barbolight beam diffuser has a different color that
contrasts a lot.
 Sparkle. The light emitted by the lantern is not
distributed in homogenous way, so it changes with
respect to the rake, producing an effect sparkle when it
moves.
 Reflectivity. Beam diffuser is made of a high reflectivity
material so its visibility is very superior even without
emission of the lantern and only with security light.
 Volume. Its foldable systems allow being transported
easily
Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH
14
7

Laser range sensor

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

148 Laser range sensor

 Laser distance sensors are designed for non-contact

distance measurements: laser gauges for measuring
ranges up to 10m, laser distance sensors for up to
270m. These sensors are used for positioning and type
classification in machine building and handling
equipment.
 Here are applications for detections, measurements or
positioning. What different laser sensors have in
common are the advantages that the use of laser light
provides. A first advantage is the high light intensity,
which enables very accurate measurement, positioning
or detection (down to nanometers). Another advantage
is the measurement speed; this is very high due to the
use of light as a medium.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

14 Different types of sensors
9
that work on the basis of
laser light are:
 Laser distance sensors
 Displacement sensors
 Laser projectors
 Laser light curtains
 Laser photoelectric sensors
 Positioning lasers
 Laser edge detection sensors

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

150 1.Laser distance sensors

 Laser distance sensors measure distances and allow it

to take measurements at great distances. These
distance sensors work on the basis of the Time-Of-
Flight (ToF) principle, which means that the sensor
emits a laser beam and receives the reflection from it.
The time that elapses between sending and receiving
the laser light ensures that the laser distance sensor
can internally determine the distance. The distance
over which the measurements can be taken differs per
series.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

151 Working Principle of a
LASER Sensor
 In a LASER sensor, the measurement of distance is
based on the triangulation principle. By this principle,
the LASER beam will be incident on the object. LASER
sensor would strike the object as a small point; some
part of the light will be reflected back. The receiver of
the sensor will detect the position of this point. The
angle of incidence will change according to the
distance and so will the position of the LASER point in
the receiver.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

15
2
Working of LASER Sensor

 LASER beam is incident on the object which is to be

sensed. Since LASER is a highly focused beam of light,
it would appear as a small bright dot.
 When the LASER beam is incident on the object which
is to be sensed, some part of light would be reflected
back by the object. This reflected light is sensed by a
receiver in the sensor, say a photodiode. The sensor
has internal circuitry that would do the signal
processing part.
 In signal processing, the time taken by the light to emit
and the time taken by the light to reflect back are
calculated. The speed of LASER light emission is fixed.
So, the object’s distance from the sensor can be
calculated simply by using speed and time. The sensor
will generate an electrical signal according to the
distance sensed. This signal is either digital or analog.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

15 2. Laser Displacement
3
Sensors
 Displacement sensors are generally used to detect
objects. Displacement sensors are not aimed to
measure distance. In Displacement sensors, the sensor
would emit LASER light. A passing object would reflect
the beam when the object crosses the displacement
sensors. This reflected beam would make the sensor
judge the received reflection as a detection of the
object.
 Displacement sensors are more versatile. Displacement
sensors can be used in thickness measurement also.
Displacement sensors can be used in profile
measurements and position measurements.

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154 2. Laser Displacement
Sensors

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15
5
3. Laser Projector

 LASER projectors are LASERs that can project LASER

light on the desired surface. The projected light can
determine margins, dimensions, or position in an
application. LASER projectors are used in industries like
textile or electronics. LASER projectors are also used
for presentations in offices, classrooms, hotels,
museums, showrooms, and attractions to simulation
applications.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

156 4. LASER Photoelectric
Sensors
 LASER photoelectric sensors are used where the
processes are carried out at high speed. For example,
counting/detecting the product. Because of their
capacity to detect objects at high speeds, they are also
known as trigger sensors.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

157 5. LASER Edge Detection
Sensors
 LASER edge detection sensors are used where inline
detection and counting one side of the product are
needed. The LASER edge detection sensors are
mounted in the production line. The LASER edge
detection sensors are used where thin sheets/plates
must be detected on the basis of thickness so as to
limit accumulations and production errors.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

158 6. Laser Light Curtains

 These types of laser sensors consist of a transmitter

and a receiver. There is a barrier of parallel laser
beams emitted between the transmitter and receiver.
Objects passing through the barrier are detected and
also measured.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

15
9
7. Laser Positioning
sensor
 These lasers are used for the positioning of the
products. The positioning laser transmits a projection
and it does not receive the reflection.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

160 Advantages of LASER
sensors
 The LASER sensor’s measurement is very accurate.
 LASER sensors have a high direction of the beam and a
small divergence angle of light.
 The level of brightness is high for LASER sensors.
 LASER sensors can range up to several kilometers.
 The frequency width for LASER sensors is smaller than
ordinary light.
 Contactless measurement is done by LASER sensors, so
does not interrupt the process.
 Digital, as well as analog outputs, are available for
LASER sensors.
 LASER sensors can be used in all industrial
environments.
 Detects a wide range of materials.
 It is easy to install Laser sensors.
Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

 Resistant to interference and environmental noise.

16 Disadvantages of LASER
1
sensors
 LASER sensors are more expensive than analog
measuring devices.
 LASER sensors are very delicate because very precise
calibration needs to be maintained.
 In some processes, a very high level of precision is not
needed. Hence LASER sensors are not suitable there.
 LASER sensors can damage eyesight.

Prepared by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH

16 Applications of LASER
2
sensors
 Location of object
 Quality control
 Aligning the railway track
 Measuring wire diameter
 Welding head position
 Measure brake rotor thickness
 Vehicle counting
 Limit recognition of the width and height of the vehicle
 Measuring the distance between two sheets
 Power tool control
 Checking wood thickness
 Deviation control in the process
 Quality Control
Prepared
check the wood thickness
by Sivanesh A R, AP/MECH