Module 4

Interpretation and
Report Writing
 Contents
• Meaning of Interpretation
• Techniques of Interpretation
• Precautions in Interpretation
• Significance of Report Writing
• Different Steps in Writing Report

• Layout of Research Report

• Types of Research Report
• Oral Presentation
• Mechanics of Writing a Research Report
• Precautions for Writing Research Reports
INTERPRETATION

•Data collection and analysis precede drawing inferences

and report writing
•Careful handling is crucial to avoid drawing misleading
conclusions
•Interpretation reveals underlying relations and processes
•Hypothesis testing may lead to generalizations
•Research without a hypothesis relies on theory to explain
findings
•Effective communication of inferences is essential, often
through a research report, to intended recipients
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
 MEANING OF INTERPRETATION
• Interpretation of data refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study

• In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings

• The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz.,

i. The effort to establish continuity in research through

linking the results of a given study with those of another,
and

ii. The establishment of some explanatory concepts

 WHY INTERPRETATION?
• Proper interpretation is crucial for the utility of research findings
• Interpretationallows researchers to understand abstract principles
underlying their findings
• It
facilitates linking findings with those of other studies, enabling
predictions about real-world events and subsequent testing
• Establishment of explanatory concepts through interpretation guides
future research and stimulates the pursuit of knowledge
• Ithelps researchers and others grasp the real significance of research
findings
• Interpretationof exploratory research often leads to hypotheses for
experimental research, playing a role in the transition from
exploratory to experimental research.
 TECHNIQUES OF INTERPRETATION
• Interpretationdemands skill and experience, often
requiring guidance from experts
• The technique of interpretation involves explaining
found relations, interpreting underlying processes, and
seeking uniformity in research findings
• Extraneous information collected during the study
should be considered in interpreting final results
• Consulting someone with insight into the study before
final interpretation can enhance accuracy and utility of
research results
• Carefulconsideration of all relevant factors is necessary
to avoid false generalization, and haste in interpreting
results can lead to inaccurate conclusions
 PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
Correct interpretation is crucial for accurate conclusions
Points to consider for correct interpretation:
• Ensure data appropriateness, trustworthiness, and
homogeneity
• Be cautious about errors in interpreting results
• Interpretation is intertwined with analysis
• Identify hidden factors and avoid broad
generalizations
• Constant interaction between hypothesis, observation,
and theoretical conceptions is essential
 PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
• Theproper interpretation of data is essential for drawing
accurate conclusions. Even with correctly collected and
analyzed data, incorrect interpretation can lead to
misleading results. To ensure correct interpretation,
researchers must adhere to several key points:
• Data Appropriateness and Trustworthiness: The
researcher must ascertain that the data are suitable,
reliable, and adequate for drawing inferences. For
example, in a medical study, ensuring that patient records
are accurate and complete is crucial for trustworthy data.
• Homogeneity of Data: It's important to confirm that the
data reflect good homogeneity. In a survey about
consumer preferences, ensuring that the respondents
belong to similar demographics can help in maintaining
data homogeneity.
 PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
• Proper Statistical Analysis: Researchers must verify
that proper statistical methods have been employed for
data analysis. For instance, in an environmental study,
using appropriate statistical tests to analyze pollution
levels across different regions is crucial for accurate
interpretation.
• Cautious Interpretation: Researchers should remain
vigilant about possible errors in interpretation. This
includes being mindful of false generalization, wrong
interpretation of statistical measures, and the tendency
to affirm definite relationships based on specific
hypotheses. For example, in a psychology study, being
cautious about inferring causation from correlation is
 PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
• Integration of Analysis and Interpretation:
Understanding that the task of interpretation is
intertwined with analysis is crucial. Researchers must
take precautions concerning data reliability,
computational checks, validation, and comparison of
results. For example, in a market research study,
integrating interpretation with analysis involves ensuring
that the conclusions align with the validated data and
computational checks.
• Identification of Hidden Factors: Researchers must
focus on identifying and disengaging hidden factors. This
enables them to interpret their findings accurately. For
instance, in a study on workplace productivity, identifying
hidden factors affecting employee performance is crucial
for a comprehensive interpretation of results.
 PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
• Avoiding Broad Generalizations: It's important to avoid
broad generalizations, as most research may be limited to
specific conditions. Researchers should specify any restrictions
and frame results within their limits. For example, in a study on
the effectiveness of a teaching method, specifying the limited
scope of the study ensures that the conclusions are
appropriately framed.

• Constant Interaction between Hypothesis and

Observation: Researchers should maintain continuous
interaction between initial hypotheses, empirical observations
and theoretical conceptions. This interaction provides
opportunities for originality and creativity in the interpretation
of results. For example, in a scientific study, the constant
interaction between hypotheses and observations allows for the
REPORT WRITING
 SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING
•A research report is integral to completing the research
study
• Despite brilliant hypotheses and well-designed studies,
findings hold little value unless effectively
communicated
• The purpose of research is not fully served unless
findings are shared and integrated into general
knowledge
• Writing the report is considered the last step and
requires distinct skills
• Seeking expert assistance and guidance can ensure
effective communication of research findings
 DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Logical analysis of subject matter: Involves developing the subject logically or
chronologically. For instance, in a study on economic trends, logical development might
analyze connections between various economic indicators, while chronological development
could focus on the sequence of events leading to specific economic changes.

Preparation of the final outline: Outlines provide a framework for organizing the material.
In a report on climate change, the outline might include sections on causes, impacts, and
mitigation strategies.
 DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Preparation of the rough draft: Involves recording the methodology, limitations, analysis
techniques, findings, and suggestions. For example, in a healthcare study, this step
encompasses detailing data collection methods, constraints, analytical approaches, and
proposed healthcare interventions based on findings.

Rewriting and polishing: This step involves revising for logical development, cohesion, and
consistency. For instance, in an environmental report, this process ensures that the content
flows logically, maintains unity, and addresses any weaknesses.
 DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Preparation of the final bibliography: Involves creating a list of consulted works, arranged
alphabetically and divided into books/pamphlets and magazine/newspaper articles. For
example, in a psychology report, the bibliography lists consulted works on relevant theories,
research methods, and empirical studies.

Writing the final draft: The final step involves concise, objective writing, avoiding vague
expressions and incorporating common examples. For instance, in a technology report, the
final draft employs simple language, includes relatable examples, and maintains originality to
engage and inform the audience.
 LAYOUT OF RESEARCH REPORT
• Preliminary Pages

• Main text

1.Introduction

2.Statement of findings and recommendations

3.Results

4.Implications drawn from the results and

5.Summary

• End matter
 LAYOUT OF RESEARCH REPORT
(A) Preliminary Pages:
• Title
and date followed by acknowledgements (Preface or
Foreword)
• Tableof contents, list of tables, and illustrations for easy
information location
(B) Main Text:
(i) Introduction: Clear statement of research objectives,
hypotheses, and major concepts. Detailed explanation of study
methodology, sample details, and statistical analysis. Scope,
limitations, and boundaries of the study should be outlined.
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: Non-technical
presentation of findings and recommendations.
 LAYOUT OF RESEARCH REPORT
(iii) Results: Detailed presentation of findings with supporting
data in logical sequence, using statistical summaries rather than
raw data. Results should align with the research problem and
hypotheses.
(iv) Implications of the results: Explanation of implications for
similar circumstances, limitations affecting generalizations, and
new questions raised. A short conclusion summarizing main
points and relating conclusions to the initial hypotheses.
(v) Summary: A brief summary restating the research problem,
methodology, major findings, and conclusions.
 LAYOUT OF RESEARCH REPORT
(C) End Matter:
• Appendices
for technical data such as questionnaires and
mathematical derivations
• Bibliography of consulted sources
• Index for easy navigation and content retrieval within the report
 TYPES OF REPORTS
• Research reports can vary greatly in length and form, often dictated by the specific
context and nature of the research.

• For example, business firms may prefer concise reports in letter form, while
mathematicians may present their findings using algebraic notations, and chemists
might report their results using symbols and formulae.

• Moreover, students of literature often write extensive reports involving critical

analysis, while those in the fields of education and psychology may produce reports
focused on the results of experimentation, accompanied by detailed statistical
tabulations.

• News items, book reviews, comprehensive reports by governmental bureaus, and

Ph.D. theses also represent various forms of report writing.
 TYPES OF REPORTS
• The above examples illustrate that research findings can be presented
in diverse ways, including technical reports, popular reports, articles,
monographs, and even oral presentations.

• The method of presentation chosen depends on the circumstances

under which the study arose and the nature of the results.

• Technical reports are used when a full written report is required, often
for record-keeping or public dissemination, while popular reports are
employed when research results have policy implications.
 TYPES OF REPORTS
Technical Report:
• Emphasis on methods, assumptions, detailed findings,
supporting data
• Generaloutline includes summary, nature of study, methods
employed, data analysis, conclusions, bibliography,
technical appendices, and index
• Prioritizes
simple presentation and ready availability of
findings, often including charts and diagrams
 TYPES OF REPORTS
Popular Report:
• Emphasizes simplicity, attractiveness, and practical
implications
• General outline includes findings and implications,
recommendations for action, study objectives, methods
employed, results, and technical appendices if needed
• Prioritizesclear, non-technical presentation, liberal use of
illustrations, and policy implications from an operational
standpoint, while minimizing technical details
Both types of reports cater to specific needs, ensuring that the content is
presented in a manner suitable for the intended audience and the nature of
the research. The choice between technical and popular reports depends on
the context and the significance of the research findings.
 ORAL PRESENTATION
• An oral presentation is a formal, research-based presentation of your work

• Presentations happen in a range of different places.

• Learning how to construct and deliver an effective oral presentation is a

useful skill

• Oral presentation supplements the written report

 ORAL PRESENTATION
• Oral presentations are effective, especially for results with policy recommendations

• Drawback includes lack of permanent record, leading to potential fading of findings from memory

• Written reports may be circulated before oral presentations to provide a reference during
discussions

• Visual aids like slides, wall charts, and blackboards enhance clarity and engagement during
presentations

• Structured outlines with important tables and charts keep the audience focused, particularly in
academic seminars or group discussions
 ORAL PRESENTATION
• Common practice in academic institutions
involves writing a technical report and preparing
research papers for discussion, while practical
issues with policy implications often opt for
popular reports

• Research conducted for governmental or major

public/private organizations is typically presented
in the form of technical reports
MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

• Size and physical design • Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes

• Use of statistics, charts and graphs

• Procedure
• The final draft
• Layout
• Bibliography
• Treatment of quotations • Preparation of the index

• The footnotes

• Documentation style
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the
actual preparation of the research report or paper.
• Size and Physical Design: The manuscript should be on 8 1/2" × 11"
unruled paper. For handwritten reports, black or blue-black ink should
be used. Margins of at least 1.5 inches on the left, half an inch on the
right, and one inch at the top and bottom are required.
• Procedure: Follow the outlined steps for writing the report strictly.
• Layout:Determine and adopt a suitable layout based on the objective
and nature of the problem.
• Example: If the report involves statistical analysis, a layout
emphasizing charts and graphs might be appropriate.
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• There are very definite and set rules
which should be followed in the
actual preparation of the research
report or paper.
• Treatment of Quotations: Use
quotation marks for shorter
quotations and indent longer
quotations.
• Example: "According to Smith (Year),
'the findings suggest...'" (Smith,
Year, p. 10).
• Footnotes: Properly format and
number footnotes for referencing
and supplemental value.
•
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the
actual preparation of the research report or paper.
• Documentation Style: Follow specific formatting guidelines for
different types of references, including books, periodicals, and
anthologies.
• Thedocumentation style for footnotes follows specific guidelines for
various types of references:
(i) Single-volume reference:
• Author's name in normal order
• Title of work underlined
• Place and date of publication
• Pagination
references Example: John Gassner, Masters of the Drama,
New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p. 315.
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• Documentation Style: Follow specific formatting guidelines for
different types of references, including books, periodicals, and
anthologies.
(ii) Multivolumed reference:
• Author's name
• Title of work underlined
• Place and date of publication
• Volume number
• Pagination references
(iii) Works arranged alphabetically: For encyclopedias and dictionaries,
no pagination reference is usually needed.
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• Documentation Style: Follow specific formatting guidelines for
different types of references, including books, periodicals, and
anthologies.
(iv) Periodicals reference:
• Author's name
• Title of article in quotation marks
• Name of periodical underlined
• Volume number
• Date of issuance
• Pagination

(v) Anthologies and collections reference: Acknowledged by both author

and collector's name
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• Documentation Style: Follow specific formatting guidelines for
different types of references, including books, periodicals, and
anthologies.
(vi) Second-hand quotations reference:
• Original author and title
• "quoted or cited in"
• Second author and work
(vii) Multiple authorship: Only the name of the first author is given,
followed by "et al." or "and others".
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the
actual preparation of the research report or paper.
• Punctuation and Abbreviations in Footnotes: Use standard
abbreviations and punctuation for efficiency and clarity.
• "et • "e.g." for "exempli gratia" (for example)
al." for "et alia" (and others)
• "i.e." for "id est" (that is)
• "p." for "page" • "vol." for "volume"
• "pp."
• "no." for "number"
for "pages“ • "ed." for "editor" or "edition"
• Use of Statistics, Charts, and Graphs: Present statistical data in
tables, charts, and graphs to enhance clarity and understanding.
• Example: A bar chart illustrating the distribution of survey responses.
 MECHANISM OF WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
• The Final Draft: Carefully revise and rewrite the rough draft to ensure
clarity, coherence, and grammatical correctness.
• Example: After revising the rough draft, ensure that each paragraph
flows logically into the next.
• There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the
actual preparation of the research report or paper.
• Bibliography: Include a properly formatted bibliography listing all
works cited in the report.
• Preparation of the Index: Include a subject index and an author
index arranged alphabetically to guide readers through the report's
content.
• Example: An index entry for a specific topic, directing the reader to
relevant pages within the report.
 PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH
REPORTS
Length: Ensure the report is long enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain
interest.

Engagement: Keep the report interesting to sustain reader's interest.

Clarity: Avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon, conveying the matter as simply as
possible.

Accessibility: Provide a summary of important findings and use visual aids like charts, graphs,
and tables for easy understanding.

Layout: Plan a suitable layout aligned with the research problem's objective.

Grammar and Composition: Ensure the report is free from grammatical errors and follows
proper composition techniques.
 PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH
REPORTS
Logical Analysis: Present a logically structured analysis of the subject matter.

Originality: Aim for originality and contribution to the existing knowledge.

Policy Implications: Include policy implications and forecasts related to the

problem.

Appendices: Include technical data in appendices.

Bibliography: Provide a bibliography of consulted sources.

Index: Include an index at the end of the report.

 PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING RESEARCH
REPORTS
Appearance: Ensure the report is visually appealing and well-presented.

Confidence Limits: Mention calculated confidence limits and any constraints

faced during the research.

Introduction: Clearly state the study's objective, problem nature, methods

employed, and analysis techniques in the introduction.

one should always keep in view the fact report-writing is an

art which is learnt by practice and experience, rather than by mere doctrination.
THANK YOU